pproximate time since beginnin ach interval in millions of sore the present Major Geological, Climatic, and Biological Events 0.01 7 There were extensive and repeated periods of glaciation in the Northern Hemisphere. The Neogene midlattude savan fa faunas became extinct, and hominids expanded throughout the Old World. Near the end of the interval, hominids reached the New World, There was an extinction of many large mammals, especially in the New Werid and in Australia. The remaining camivorous flightless birds also became extinct. 5.2 23 33.4 35 65 Cooler and more arid climates persisted, resulting from mountain uplit and the formation of the lithmus of Panama ‘ear the end of the interval. The Arctic ice cap formed by the end of the interval. The First grasslands spread in the mid dle latitudes. Modern families of mammals and birds radiated, and marine mammals and birds diversified in the oceans, The first hominids were seen near the end ofthe interval Global climate was warm in the early part of the inten, with forests above the Arctic Cirle, But later in the Interval erm peratures fli the higher lltudes, withthe formation of the Antarctic ice cap. Mammals diversified into larger body sizes And a greater variety of adaptive types, including predators and herbivores. Manvmal raiations included archaic forms, now extinct, and the earliest members of lving orders, Giant carnivorous fightess birds were common as predators. 144 Further separation ofthe continents occurred, including the breakup ofthe southern continent, Gondwana, Teleost fishes adh ated, but marine reptiles flourshed. Angiosperms fist appeared, and rapidly dverfed to become the dominant land plants by the end of the peri. Dinosaurs remained the dominant tetrapods, but small marnmals versed. Ai space and shorelines were shared by birds and pterosaurs, and the fst snakes appeared. A major mass extinction atthe end ofthe period, defining the end ofthe Mesozoic, claimed dinosaurs, pterosaus, and marine reptiles, aswell as many maine invertebrates, 206 251 The word continent began to break up, withthe formation of the Alantic Ocean, Marine invertebrates began to take on @ ‘modem aspect withthe diversification of predators, moder sharks and rays appeared, and marine eptles dverstied. Conifers and ather gymnosperms were the dominant terestrial vegetation, and insects civersied, Dinesaurs dversfied wile mammals remained small and relatively inconspicuous. The fst birds, lizards, and salamanders were seen atthe end ofthe period, The word continent was relatively high, with few shallow seas, No evidence of glaciation existed, and the interior ofthe con- tinent was arid. Seed fern terrestrial vegetation was replaced by conifers i the Laer part of the period. Mammal-ike reptiles ecined, wile afchosaurian reptiles (including dinosaur ancestor) divesfied. Remaining large nonamnvote tetrapods now all specialized aquatic forms. Fst appearances by the end ofthe period included true mammals, dinosaurs, plerosaurs, marine replies, crocodies,lepidosaurs, fog-ike amphibians, and teleost fishes. 290 A single world continent, Pangea, was forned atthe end ofthe period. Gladation ceased early in the period. The large teres tal nonamniote tevapods decid an the amniotes radiated, Amnicte diversficaton incided the ancestors of moder rep- Les and the ancestors of mammals, the mamma-ike reptiles, which were the dominant large testaltevapods. The fist her bivorous tetrapods were known, The largest known mass extinction event occurred on both land and sea at the end ofthe per 0, defining the end of the Paleozoic 354 “There was a major glaciation inthe secord half ofthe period, with low atmospheric levels of CO, Coal swamps were preva lentin the then-tropical areas of North America and Eurepe. Majo radiation of insects, including fying forms. Dwversfcation of Jawed fishes, incuting sharklke forms and primitive bony fishes, and fist appearance of moder types of jawiess fishes. Extensive racation of onamaiote tetrapods, ith the appearance of the fist amniote (eluding the east mamma-tke rep- tls) by the late part ofthe period 417 ‘There was major mauintain bullding in North America and Europe. Major freshwater basins preserved, containing the frst tetrapods atthe end ofthe period in equatorial regions. About the same tme there were the fist forests with tal tees on land, and terrestial arthopods diversi. Both jawed and janes fishes diversified, but both experienced major extinctions toward the end the end of the perio, with the disappearance ofthe ostracoderms, the armored janes fishes. 443 490 The extensive shallow seas continued, But on dryland there was the frst evidence of vascular plants and arthropods. jawless fishes raciated, and jawed fishes (sharkke forms) were now defintely known, ‘There were widespread shallow seas aver the continents, and the global imate was equable untlla sharp glaciation at he end (ofthe period. Fist evidence of complex plants on land. Major radiation of marine annals, induding the fst wel-knovm jaw les shes and fragmentary evidence of jawed fishes, 543 ‘Continental masses of the late Proterazoic now broken up in to sale Blacks, covered by shallow seas. Explosive rafaion of animals a the beginning ofthe period, with fist appearance of forms with shal or other hard coverings. Fist appearance of chordates and great diversification of arthopods, including triobites. Fst vertebrates appeared early in the perio, 2,500 Formation of large continental masses. Oxygen fist appears in the atmosphere, Fist eukaryotic organisms appeared around 2 billon years ago. Major divestication of feat 1 bilion years ago, with multcllar organisms, including algae. First animals appeared around 600 milion years aga, just after a major glaciation, 4,600 Formation ofthe Earth, Major bombardment of the Earth by extaterresial bodes, precluding formation of fe unt 4 bilion years ago (list fossis known at 3.5 bilion yeas ago). Small contents. Hydrosphere definite at 38 illon years, aurosphere ‘without fre oxygen,Geological Time Scale Era Period Epoch U - Holocene 5 | QUATERNARY (Recent) 8 5 Pleistocene aS N Zz Z Neogene viocene s @ | TERTIARY z Oligocene Paleogene Eocene Paleocene CRETACEOUS Subdivisions exist of all periods, at ¥ least into Early and Late portions, 6 Y and sometimes with a Middle 8 5 portion, Within these divisions g N . there are further subdivisions, similar 5 9 JURASSIC to the epochs of the Tertiary and 5 a Quatemary Periods. This level of g 2 detail is not shown here, TRIASSIC PERMIAN CARBONIFEROUS gy o : S| DEVONIAN Zz g < ei ai z x | SILURIAN g z 2 ORDOVICIAN CAMBRIAN (Proterozoic) (Archean)