SoilUse

and Management
Soil Use and Management, December 2013, 29, 547–556 doi: 10.1111/sum.12064

Impacts of land-use intensity on soil organic carbon

content, soil structure and water-holding capacity

L V A R E Z 2 , C. L OP
M. A C
IN -C A R R E R A 1 , M. J O S E
M A R Q U E S 2 , 3 , P. C A R R A L 2 , A. M. A
E Z 1 , B. M A R T
IN -L OP

EZ1 &

EZ 1
J. A. G O N Z AL
1
Social-ecological Systems Lab, Department of Ecology, c/Darwin, 2. Universidad Aut

onoma de Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria de
Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain, 2Department of Geology and Geochemistry, c/Francisco Tomás y Valiente, 7. Universidad
onoma de Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain, and 3DesertNet-International, Hamburg
Aut

University, Hamburg, Germany

Abstract
The impact of land-use intensity is evaluated through changes in the soil properties in different areas
of the traditional central Spanish landscape. Soil organic carbon (SOC) content, bulk density,
aggregate stability and water-holding capacity (WHC) in the topsoil of active and abandoned
vineyards, livestock routes (LR) and young Quercus afforested areas were analysed. These different
types of land use can be interpreted as having a gradient of progressively less impact on soil functions
or conservation. As soil use intensity declines, there is an increase in SOC content (from 0.2 to 0.6%),
WHC (from 0.2 to 0.3 g H2O per g soil) and aggregate stability (from 4 to 33 drop impacts). Soils
beneath vines have lost their upper horizon (15 cm depth) because of centuries-old tillage
management of vineyards. Except for an increase in bulk density (from 1.2 to 1.4 g/cm3), there were
no differences in soil characteristics 4 yr after the abandonment of vine management. LR can be
considered sustainable uses of land, which preserve or improve soil characteristics, as there were no
significant differences between topsoil from LR and that from a 40-yr-old Quercus afforested area.
SOC content, one of the main indicators for soil conservation, is considered very low in every case
analysed, even in the more conservative uses of land. These data can be useful in understanding the
slow rate of recovery of soils, even after long-term cessation of agricultural land use.

Keywords: Livestock routes, abandoned lands, vineyards, soil organic carbon, soil structure,
agricultural policies

food safety and animal welfare standards (reforms since 2004–

Introduction
The current situation of degraded agricultural soils in southern
Europe is due in part to the variety of agricultural policies
implemented in the last 30 yr that have gone through different
stages. The first objective of European policies was ‘to increase
productivity, by promoting technical progress and ensuring
the optimum use of the factors of production, in particular
labour’ (Treaty of Rome, 1957). In the nineties, policies
focused on the creation of set-aside payments to withdraw
land from production; as a consequence, between 10 and 20%
of agricultural lands in the Euro-Mediterranean countries were
abandoned (Grove & Rackham, 1996). The last ‘single farm
payments’ were subject to conditions relating to environment,
Correspondence: M. Jos
e Marques. E-mail: mariajose.marques@uam.es
Received September 2012; accepted after revision March 2013
2005). Currently, there is a new proposal to reform the
Common Agricultural Policy with three main goals: viable
food production, sustainable management of ecosystems and
balanced territorial development. To develop this new vision
of improving the management of agro-ecosystems, farmers
should be involved in preserving environmental landscapes,
and policy makers must base their decisions on scientific
knowledge. Quantitative information, from both observations
and modelling, is needed. Particularly, local data on the
current state of soil conservation would provide the
information needed to understand how different soil
properties change over time and under different land uses,
compared with their unaltered original conditions.
As a consequence of these European agricultural policies,
countries with semi-arid climates are currently a mosaic of
abandoned and used lands, whose detailed conservation

© 2013 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science 547
548 M. Ac
ın-Carrera et al.
states are usually unknown. The most common types of land
uses are tillage-managed and fallow lands. Soil tillage is an
intensive use of land that can lead to a loss of productivity
in the medium-to-long-term depending on fertilizer rates
(Marton et al., 2011) and therefore, promote land
abandonment (Barbero et al., 2012). There is extensive
literature about the impact of tillage on soil structural
stability (Abid & Lal, 2009) and its ability to oxidize organic
matter (Mart
ınez Mena et al., 2002) rapidly the first years
and more slowly thereafter (Balesdent et al., 2000). This
literature is generally in good agreement regarding the
negative consequences of this practice like the reduction in
physical protection of soil organic carbon (SOC) within
stable aggregates, and the subsequent exposure of bare soil
to rainfall and drying (Balesdent et al., 1998). Particularly,
Denef et al. (2007) highlighted the importance of the
conservation of soil structure through the protection of
microaggregates occluded in macroaggregates as a long-term
carbon-stabilization factor in forests or agricultural land
with less intensive tillage. A review of the processes through
which soil degradation by tillage may affect different
environmental aspects – soil organic carbon, soil structure,
drainage, water-holding capacity, extreme water logging or
drought – can be found in Holland (2004) for different soils
and climate conditions in Europe and Lal (2005) for
different areas around the world. There is also agreement on
the importance of aggregation in facilitating water
infiltration; providing adequate habitat space for soil
organisms; adequate oxygen supply to roots and soil
organisms; and preventing soil erosion (Franzluebbers,
2002). There is no consensus on the impact of tillage on
runoff and infiltration of water into the soil; while some
authors show that infiltration rate increases (Logsdon et al.,
1990; Matula, 2003), others have found that the annual
balance is negative (McGarry et al., 2000; Ruiz-Colmenero
et al., 2011); climatic conditions and rainfall characteristics
may introduce high variability in this issue.
Land abandonment is also frequent in southern European
landscapes owing to either lack of productivity or to obtain
eligibility for environmental aid, particularly in the process
of restructuring and converting vineyards.1 The study of the
consequences of soil abandonment is worthy, as time can
play for or against the trend of soil recovery (Blanco-Canqui
& Lal, 2008) because the gains, losses and interactions
between living organisms, soil, organic carbon, water and
nutrients depend on the prevalence of degradation processes
1
The implementation of the Common Market Organization led to
the application of the abandonment procedure. From 2008/2009
until 2010/11 inclusive, this common market structure allowed wine
producers to receive a permanent abandonment premium. The most
affected country has been Spain, with an overall reduction close to
50,000 ha (Source: OIV Global Economic Survey. March 2012
http://www.oiv.int/oiv/info/enconjoncture.)
© 2013 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, Soil Use and Management, 29, 547–556
or recovery processes, which can be ultimately the result of
random climatic processes related to the amount, duration
and intensity of rainfalls or droughts. Despite a number of
studies focusing on the soil cover by re-establishment of
vegetation, information is generally lacking on the
corresponding changes to soil physical properties (Deuchars
et al., 1999).
Another use, which is in decline but is certainly culturally
relevant to the Mediterranean landscape, is the reserve of
land for the annual migration of livestock for only a few
weeks each year, which, therefore, can be considered an
extensive use of land. Despite the worldwide presence of
livestock routes (LR), also known as drove roads,
international studies are difficult to find. Some are related to
cultural aspects (Cazorla Montero et al., 2004; Herzog et al.,
2005), ecosystem connectivity (Couvreur et al., 2005) and
their relationship with biodiversity (Bunce et al., 2004), but,
again, none regarding the consequences of this extensive use
on soil characteristics.
Discovering how land is conserved under different soil use
intensities is the main objective of this study; as it provides
information about several soil properties considered by the
European Environmental Agency in the improvement of the
management of water resources and ecosystems (Jones et al.,
2012). The evolution of soil characteristics under different
uses over time can be assessed using its soil organic carbon
(SOC) incorporation rate and its related ability to hold
moisture (Rawls et al., 2003). Both may be considered key
factors to reduce the impacts of intense rainfall and
droughts, which are projected to become more frequent and
severe in future (Solomon et al., 2007).
In this context, this study analyses the status of agricultural
soils located in an area in economic decline as an example of
degraded agricultural regions of southern Europe. It focuses
on three different land uses: (i) intensively cultivated soils,
represented by active vineyards; (ii) extensive soil
management, represented by the LR; and (iii) abandoned
agricultural soils. All of these are compared with a
conservative use of soil, represented by nearby young
afforested areas. The influence of the land-use intensity on soil
characteristics is evaluated through variations in SOC
content, structural stability, infiltration rate and water-
holding capacity, as compared amongst the above-mentioned
land uses. These variables are measured in the top soil layer
up to 15 cm, where tillage practices produce dramatic changes
in soil organic content (Balesdent et al., 2000; Hernanz et al.,
2002) and soil aggregation (Denef et al., 2007).
Materials and methods
Study area
The study area is situated in a section of the traditional LR
called Ca~
nada Real Conquense, in central Spain, between Las
 Land-use intensity 549

Pedro~neras (39º27′11″N/2º40′47″W) and Socu
ellamos (39º17′

36″N/ 2º47′55″W) (Figure 1). This LR consists of a 75
-m-wide corridor that crosses the central Iberian plateau,
and it is of particular relevance as it is still used for
migratory activities of livestock, including beef cattle, bulls
and Merino sheep (Oteros-Rozas et al., 2012). The altitude is
between 714 and 677 m.a.s.l., the average annual
temperature is 24 °C and the average annual rainfall is ca.
470 mm (Source: National Meteorological Agency, 25 yr
data, http://www.aemet.es/).
Figure 2 shows the characteristics of the dominant soil in
the study area. Although it cannot be considered an
undisturbed native soil, it is located in a place without
current signs of agricultural use. As a result of the
homogeneous geomorphological characteristics of this area,
conformed from a shallow lacustrine carbonate depositional
system (Peropadre & Mel
endez, 2004), the above-ground
horizons described in this pit are expected to be similar to
those of the rest of sampling sites. It is a basic soil (pH
between 7.4 and 8), classified as a Calcic Luvic (Arenic)
(FAO/IUSS/ISRIC, 2006).
Sampling procedure
During the spring and summer of 2011, a linear path of
7 km was selected that included three different land uses: (i)
intensively cultivated soils, represented by active vineyards;
(ii) extensive soil management, represented by the LR; and
(iii) abandoned agricultural soils. Each of these was
compared with a conservative use of soil, three isolated
patches with young Quercus ilex rotundifolia (growing since
the seventies), to be used as a control treatment. The age of
this afforested area was given by the peasants and confirmed
using the extrapolation method proposed by Gea et al.
(2007) based on the measurement of the trunk diameter at
breast height of 100 trees selected randomly from the three
forest patches. The time of vineyard abandonment was
found to be at least for 4 yr, according to the vine growers.
Ten sampling sites were selected for each land use. One
topsoil sample (up to 15 cm depth) was collected at each
site, resulting in 10 different plots representing these uses.
Because of the scarcity of the control treatment, it was not
possible to take 10 different forest samplings but 10 samples

Cañada Real Conquense

Land use type
Afforested area
Cañada (Livestock route)
Abandoned land
Vineyard
Soil pit
km
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2

Drove Road
Section

Figure 1 Study area location and sampling sites.

© 2013 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, Soil Use and Management, 29, 547–556
550 M. Ac
ın-Carrera et al.

Ap Loamy Sand
0–15 cm 7.5 YR 5/6 Dark brown
Sandy loam
Bt1 7.5 YR 4/6 Dark brown
15–35 cm

Bt2 Sandy loam

35–60 cm 2.5 YR 4/6 Brown

Loamy Sand
7.5 YR 6/4. Brown. With
silica edges. Colour 7.5 YR
Ck 8/2 Light pink.

60–125 cm

> 125 cm

Figure 2 Soil pit of the dominant soil in the

area. Soil profiles, depths, textures and
Munsell soil colours of soil horizons.

were taken from the three different afforested areas
described above (Figure 1).
Sample treatment and methods
Every soil sample was air-dried and sieved to a 2 mm
diameter; the variables of this study were evaluated using 5
analysis replicates of each of the 10 samples per land use.
Textural analyses were carried out (Bouyoucos, 1936) based
on a USDA system (silt from 0.05 to 0.002 mm). Soil pH
(1:2.5) was measured by electrometric methods. SOC content
was estimated by the loss on ignition method (LOI method,
Schulte & Hopkins, 1996), as a strong linear relationship has
been demonstrated between LOI and SOC (R2), which ranges
from 0.94 to 0.98 (Konen et al., 2002). In this method, the
combustion temperature was maintained at 360 °C, avoiding
the destruction of any inorganic carbonates that may be
present in the sample because of the calcareous nature of the
studied soil. Soil bulk density was estimated using the volume
of mercury displaced by 2–3-cm-diameter soil clods (Jonston,
1945). The water mass was determined from permanent
wilting point to field capacity by rewetting samples of sieved
soil (<2 mm). Each sample was carefully submerged in a water
tank for 4 h. The samples were then removed, permitting
drainage by gravity for 3 h. The gravimetric soil moisture was
determined at field capacity (pF 2.54), and at the permanent
wilting point (pF 4.2) using a pressure membrane extractor
system (Richards, 1941). Finally, the samples were oven-dried
at 105 °C for 24 h to obtain the dry weight.
Soil aggregate stability was determined using the water-
drop test (Imeson & Vis, 1984). The number of water drops
(CND) needed to break down 10 dry macro-aggregates
(4–4.8-mm-diameter wire mesh) per sampling site was
counted, with 100 replicates per land use.
The infiltration rate was measured using a disc
infiltrometer (Perroux & White, 1988). This method was used
with one single pressure of 3 cm height in the Mariotte
column, equivalent to 0.3 kPa suction; this allowed
infiltration through macropores up to 500 lm but not
through soil fissures (Greenland, 1977; Reeves et al., 1980).
Data were analysed statistically with the STATISTICA
software program. The probability level (P-value) at which
the null hypothesis was rejected was set at P < 0.05.
Significant differences between treatments were tested using
Tukey HSD or LSD planned comparisons tests whenever the
ANOVA was significant. Spearman’s correlations were also
carried out to establish relationships between variables.
Results and discussion
The physical and chemical characteristics of soils in the
different land uses are stated in Table 1. It was observed that
soils that are, or have ever been, intensively managed until 4 yr
ago present the same textural class as the Bt1 horizon in the pit
of the dominant soil: sandy loam (Figure 2). We attribute this
change in cultivated areas to the loss of their topsoil layer
because of a centuries-old tradition in soil tillage, which mixed

© 2013 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, Soil Use and Management, 29, 547–556
 Land-use intensity 551

Table 1 Mean and standard deviation of topsoil variables in the different land uses. The data of the representative soil type correspond to the
topsoil of the pit described in the Figure 1. The depth of topsoil layer (Ap) was 15 cm

Representative
soil Vineyard Abandoned Livestock route Forest
Soil variables type (n = 2) (n = 10) (n = 10) (n = 10) (n = 10)

% Clay 9.3  3.3 14.8  2.1a 14.5  4.3a 9.0  4.6b 9.7  2.4b
% Silt 6.1  2.0 9.7  2.3a 8.5  2.7a 9.3  2.1a 8.7  1.9a
% Sand 84.6  4.3 75.5  3.4a 77.0  6.8a 81.7  6.0b 81.6  3.4b

Textural class Loamy sand Sandy loam Sandy loam Loamy sand Loamy sand

pHH2O 7.7  0.2 8.2  0.3a 8.1  0.2a 8.0  0.2a 7.4  0.2b
pHKCl 7.2  0.1 7.5  0.1a 7.3  0.2b 7.4  0.1b 6.8  0.2c
Bulk density (g/cm3) 1.3  0.1 1.2  0.2a 1.6  0.2b 1.4  0.1c 1.2  0.1a

Different letters indicate significant differences between land uses.

±Std. Dev. b
0.7
40 ±Std. Err.
0.6 Mean

CND index (N)

0.5
30
SOC (%)

0.4
b 20 b
0.3 a
b
0.2 a 10
a
0.1 a

0.0 0

b
a 0.36
120
a b
100 0.32
b
Soil moisture (g/g)
Infiltration (mm/h)

b a
80 0.28 a

60 0.24

40 0.20

20 0.16
Figure 3 Means and standard deviations of
soil organic carbon (SOC) content, aggregate
0 0.10
stability (counting number of drops, CND), Active Livestock Active Livestock
infiltration rate and gravimetric soil moisture vineyard route vineyard route
at field capacity in the four different land Abandoned Afforested Abandoned Afforested
uses. vineyard area vineyard area

soil layers at different depths. On the contrary, the upper
horizon is preserved on the soils from the afforested area and
the LR. In these less intensive soil uses, there are organic
inputs from litter or animal faeces, and soils are protected by
the permanent spontaneous vegetation cover throughout the
year. Significant differences are shown in Figure 3.
A high SOC content in a soil suggests fertility (Sikora &
Stott, 1996) and provides soil with buffering capacity, high
biodiversity, good structure and effective carbon
sequestration, amongst other characteristics. Soils with SOC
content below 1% can be considered degraded (Imeson
et al., 2006). In this study, SOC content in arable lands was

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552 M. Ac
ın-Carrera et al.
below the 1% limit, although this low content can be
considered the typical value for these agricultural lands in
southern Europe (Zdruli et al., 2004). SOC ranged from 0.2
to 0.3% on the vineyard’s soils (Figure 3), and after 4 yr of
abandonment, there was not a significant increase in SOC
content; nevertheless, it was higher than 0.5% in the soils
from the LR and forests. Other similar topsoils under
Mediterranean climatic conditions experienced an increase in
SOC content from 0.9 to 1.4% after 15 yr of no tillage
(Alvaro-Fuentes et al., 2009).
There is some evidence that abandonment of agricultural
land and the subsequent regeneration of scrubland or forests
through secondary succession may return C storage to pre-
agricultural levels, although the rate of recovery depends on
the time under consideration and whether the land was
previously used for crops or pasture (Guo & Gifford, 2002).
In this study, when soil is under forests or is extensively used
as a LR, the SOC content averages 9.3–11.4 Mg/ha. It is
necessary to point that these figures refer to the first 15 cm of
soil, to compare them with other values in the literature
having different reference depths (usually 1 m), the estimation
of SOC distribution found by Jobb
agy and Jackson (2000) can
be used. These authors analysed the SOC content variations
with climate and soil texture at different soil depths using
more than 2700 soil profiles in the world. According to their
results, the 40% of all SOC content in the top 1 m is contained
in the uppermost 20 cm in temperate grasslands and crops;
this amount increases up to 48% in temperate evergreen
forests. Following these estimates, we could state that the SOC
content in the first metre in the afforested or LR soil described
in this study would be between 23 and 29 Mg/ha. These values
are far from those described for mature forests in the area.
For instance, Rodr
ıguez Murillo (2001) reviewed SOC
concentration in Spain under the main types of land uses from
the topsoil to 75 cm depth and found a very high variability
(CV~70%). This author found SOC concentrations in soils
under broadleaved forests and bushlands from 94 to 113 Mg/
ha. This means that in the forest use after 40 yr the soil has
recovered a considerably low amount of SOC. This is not
unusual as a wide review carried out in the Mediterranean
climate region of Australia shows no evidence of changes in
SOC content three decades after afforestation in different soil
depths up to 30 cm (Hoogmoed et al., 2012).
The results of this study also show that intensive use of land
(vineyards, active or abandoned) maintains SOC content at
rates of ca. 2.3 and 4.6 Mg/ha, respectively. These contents
are also low compared with the SOC concentrations in soils
under vineyards and olive groves recorded by Rodr
ıguez
Murillo (2001), which were 43  29 and 40  28 Mg C per
ha, respectively. Regarding these differences, it is worth to
mention that when different carbon stocks are compared, it is
necessary to take into account bulk density variation and
depth because if the compared volumes are too shallow,
ploughed-SOC storage can be underestimated (Balesdent
© 2013 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, Soil Use and Management, 29, 547–556
et al., 2000). In any case, these figures confirm the critical
threshold for SOC content in topsoils of southern Europe; as
stated by Zdruli et al. (2004), up to 74% of topsoil (0–30 cm
depth) shows <2% of organic carbon.
In short, after 40 yr of Quercus tree cover, the calculated
recovery of SOC can be as low as 0.15 Mg/ha/y. The low
rates of SOC recovery found in this study are because of a
low net primary productivity in these degraded soils that
may be caused by their low organic matter content, water
imbalance and frequent droughts. The literature shows a
wide range of variability in the results of the impact of
afforestation on soil carbon and the corresponding
sequestration rates. This is the consequence of different
methods, soil depths, vegetation, climate, soil type and
previous land use. Examples of relative gains of 0.6 Mg C
per ha per yr can be found in humid oak forests after 80 yr
of afforestation (Jenkinson, 1971), also moderate gains of
0.3 Mg C per ha per yr in forest or woody vegetation
establishment after some period of agricultural use (Post &
Kwon, 2000). There are also low increases such as 0.016 Mg
C per ha per yr in some cases in a review of more than 200
afforested sites around the world (Paul et al., 2002), and
even decreases by 0.09 Mg C per ha per yr in warm
temperate areas after grazing exclusion and growing of
shrub oaks (Brejda, 1997). In a recent meta-analysis
reviewing 25 studies in different scenarios in Mediterranean
climates, Hoogmoed et al. (2012) found no evidence for
substantial changes in soil carbon, across three decades of
afforestation.
Changes in SOC are also slow after abandonment of
vineyards. Novara et al. (2013) estimated that 40–60 yr are
necessary to multiply the SOC content by 1.5–1.6 on semi-
arid abandoned vineyards in the first 15 cm of soil depth.
Following this trend, much more time would be needed to
achieve soil carbon stocks of undisturbed native forest within
this phytoclimatic environment, which are reported in the
literature ranging from 6.5 to 9.9% SOC in the topsoil at 0–
10 cm soil depth (Fern
andez-Ondo~ no et al., 2010).
The aggregate resistance to drop impacts (CND, Figure 3)
is a good indicator of soil structural stability. Figure 3 shows
the structural stability of topsoil samples of intensively
cultivated soils, both in the past (abandoned) or current
(active vineyards). Soil disruption after tillage does impact
aggregate stability in active vineyards; while aggregates broke
up after receiving an average of only four drop impacts
(CND = 4.3  1.7, n = 100), the situation improved
significantly in the abandoned vineyards, where it took up to
nine impacts (9.4  8.7) to achieve the total destruction of the
aggregate. Although these soils have not yet regained their
structural stability, the higher variability may indicate a trend
of recovery in some places. Soil aggregate stability increased
in the LR, a land use that can be observed as having an
intermediate level of human impact, because CND is three
times as high when compared with active tillage in vineyards

(13.7  7.5). The afforested cover is clearly a positive use to
preserve or improve soil structure, as its aggregates needed 33
drops for total decay (32.9  20.3). Figure 4 clearly shows
the differences between treatments considering the percentage
of survival aggregates in the four land uses.
In this study, 4 yr may be a sufficient time lapse to
perceive signs of soil structure recovery. Goulet et al. (2004)
reported a period of 9 yr of soil cover to observe such
changes. Marques et al. (2009) did not find structural
changes after 2 yr of cover crops in vineyards, although in
that study the CND index was higher (eight drops). All these
figures are in the range of those observed along a catena of
soils and vegetation in a semi-arid environment (<300 mm/y
annual rainfall), as Cant
on et al. (2009) found an average
CND between 13 and 55.
Soil structure variations have been frequently found as the
cause of infiltration variability (Valentin & Bresson, 1992),
particularly in vineyards (Leonard & Andrieux, 1998). Soil
infiltration rates in limestone are highly variable in
Mediterranean environments (Calvo-Cases et al., 2003), and
it is not uncommon to find <15 mm/h infiltration rates
(Cerda, 1997; Mart
ınez-Mena et al., 1998; Chamizo et al.,
2012).
Figure 5 shows the infiltration rates in the different land
uses, each of which was carried out during the summer
under dry soil conditions. Soils used for vineyards showed
higher infiltration rates as a result of recent tillage, which
was more evident in the first minutes of the process; soil
infiltration through macropores is four times higher than in
the other land uses (from 60 to 80 mm/h), with stabilization
taking place at 35 mm/h. The abandonment of vineyards cut
the infiltration rate by half; it began with 30 mm/h and
stabilized at 17 mm/h. Although we expected to find higher
infiltration rates in the less intensive uses, we found lower
100
90
% of surviving aggregates
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
- differences in soil texture. The lower values found in
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of drops
Active vineyard
Livestock route
Figure 4 Percentage of survival aggregates using the counting
number of drops test at different land use sites. n = 10 samples per
site and 10 aggregates per sample.
© 2013 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, Soil Use and Management, 29, 547–556
Land-use intensity 553
100
Active vineyard
90
Abandoned vineyard
80
Livestock route
70 Afforested area
60
mm/h
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 5 7 9 10 12 14
Minutes
Figure 5 Average water infiltration in the different land uses (n = 9).
The disc infiltrometer was prepared to allow infiltration through soil
pores of <500 lm.
values. Arguably, in an intact forest soil, there is a well-
developed plant cover and root system providing a diverse
soil porous structure with large and continuous pores, which
facilitate water transport through the soil, even though they
constitute only a very small fraction of the total porosity
(Cameira et al., 2003). The afforested area and the LR,
which are considered less intensive use of land, showed an
infiltration rate beginning with 20–25 mm/h and stabilized at
7–11 mm/h, as evidenced by the curve, which was elongated
and showed little variation with time, these values are close
to those found in the above-mentioned literature in similar
uses in Mediterranean environments.
The history of tillage in vineyards has lead to an increase
in soil porosity that eventually increases infiltration rates.
Nevertheless, it is worth to mention that after a period of
time, depending on meteorological conditions, the lack of
plant or residue cover in tilled soil exposed to high
intensity rainfall often results in poor aggregation,
compaction, crusting and decrease in infiltration
(Franzluebbers, 2002).
In this study, there is no relationship between soil
structure and infiltration rate. Higher infiltration rate is not
always an indicator of soil conservation. Soil permeability is
closely related to the pore space, which in turn depends on
the bulk density, and we found significant differences in this
variable due more to variations in pore space than to
80 90 100 110
afforested soils and vineyards (1.2 g/cm3) may be because of
different causes, in the forests because of an increase in SOC
Abandoned vineyard
content and root systems and in the active vineyard because
Afforested area
of recent tillage. Tillage operations are very frequent in this
region, with the resulting lower bulk density being only
temporary (Franzluebbers, 2002). In fact, tillage may lead to
further compaction when soil is no longer used, as it is
554 M. Ac
ın-Carrera et al.
shown in the bulk density value in the abandoned lands
(1.6 g/cm3). The compaction observed in the soils of the LR
(1.4 g/cm3) is arguably because of the passage of livestock
and people.
The gravimetric soil moisture is generally assumed to be
independent of bulk density and to be mainly related to
texture. The different topsoil textures in this study could
explain the variations of water content. We expected to find
higher soil moisture in sandy loam textures (vineyards) than
in loamy sand textures (afforested land and LR). To the
contrary, gravimetric soil moisture at field capacity was
higher in loamy sand textures (Figure 3; F = 3.6; P < 0.05).
Moreover, the available water in these different land uses
soil moisture between field capacity, and permanent wilting
point in sieved soils (<2 mm; mean  standard deviation)
was 18  6.5% for vineyards, 16  2.34% in soils after
abandonment, 22  7% in the LR and 23  8% in the
afforested soil. These differences may be attributed to the
higher SOC content (q = 0.6; P < 0.02) and better structure
(q = 0.5; P < 0.04) in the more conservative uses. The
benefit of this improvement in soil water retention is
particularly important in the foreseeable scenario of global
warming and evapotranspiration increase in Mediterranean
areas (Calanca et al., 2006).
Conclusions
Soils subjected to intensive land use, in the present or recent
past, are affected in their physical and chemical
characteristics. Both soil uses operational and recently
abandoned vineyards lost their topsoil layer. These soils
show a decrease of 43% in their organic carbon when
compared with afforested soils after 40 yr of Quercus tree
cover. Consequently, they also manifested less aggregate
structural stability and less water-holding capacity. The
latter variables are conserved in less intensive soil uses, such
as livestock routes, which may be because of the constant
inputs from cattle. There are very few available studies that
compare different land uses to evaluate how intensive or
extensive uses introduce differences in soil properties. This
lack of information is even more noticeable when addressing
livestock routes. Nevertheless, these long paths could act as
a spatial reference to evaluate the conservation or
degradation status of the surrounding soils.
More than 4 yr are necessary to observe signs of recovery
in these soils after the cessation of tillage. Forty years later,
the afforested land shows some improvement in soil
conditions, but this soil is still very different from
undisturbed soils under native forests described in the
literature beneath these climatic conditions. These results are
especially important in the semi-arid Spanish landscape,
which is dominated by intensive land use and a remarkably
low content of soil organic matter.
© 2013 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2013 British Society of Soil Science, Soil Use and Management, 29, 547–556
Acknowledgements
Financial support for this research was provided by the
Spanish Ministry of the Environment (Project 079/RN08/
02.1) and the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness
(Projects CGL2011-30266 and CGL-2008-04296).
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