Embedded Energy

Storage Systems
Pr. Lotfi Krichen

Students of SMART MSc 2015/2016 Year 1 - 2nd Semester

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Contents
Chapter 1: Background on Storage Systems ....................................................................................................... 2
Types of Energy Systems ................................................................................................................................. 2
Long-term Storage ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Short-term Storage ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Control of Storage Systems (Power Management) ......................................................................................... 7
Chapter 2: Fuel Cells ............................................................................................................................................ 8
Chapter 3: Supercapacitor Energy Storage Systems ........................................................................................... 9
Extra stuff .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Online videos ................................................................................................................................................. 12

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Chapter 1: Background on Storage Systems
Emphasis on stationary storage systems

Question: Why do we need to store energy when we are thinking about power grids and renewable energy
sources (PV, wind, etc.)?

Answer:

Problem: supply from renewable energy sources is not constant: it's intermittent  sometimes supply can be
lower or higher than demand.

Solution: use storage systems to store power when supply is higher than demand and distribute that storage
when it's lower.

This makes renewable energy sources equivalent to conventional (i.e. polluting) power sources  increase
use of renewable energy

Another advantage: Even when a power grid breaks down, these storage systems allow you to continuously
use electricity = independence

Why do we need energy storage when it comes to vehicles?

Vehicles are always on the move: their need for a portable source is obvious

Types of Energy Systems

Long-term Storage
Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES)

Figure 1. How PHES works (from fhc.co.uk)

How it works
When demand is higher than supply: water flows downhill to turn a turbine which generates power

When supply is higher than demand: water is pumped uphill via a pump using the extra power

Pump can be reversible (works as a turbine or pump)

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Advantages
 Most wide spread (99% of all storage systems)
 Rapid response (<1 minute)
 High efficiency (60% - 75%)
 High capacity + High power density
 Low cost per kilowatt

Disadvantage
Takes too much space.

Formulas
Hydraulic energy (free fall): 𝐸ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑉
𝐸ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐
Energy to pump water: 𝐸𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 =
ηp

Pump efficiency: 𝜂𝑃

Energy generated by turbine: 𝐸𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝐸𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐸ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 ⋅ 𝜂𝑔

Turbine efficiency: 𝜂𝑔

Overall efficiency: 𝜂𝑡 = 𝜂𝑝 ⋅ 𝜂𝑔

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)

Figure 2. How CAES works (from NREL)

How it works
When supply is higher than demand: we compress air using a moto-compressor and store the compressed air
underground (for example in an abandoned oil well – must be sealed)

When demand is higher than supply: we let the compressed air from the storage area flow through a turbine
and generate power

Advantage
Use of abandoned sites (like the example above, other examples: mines, cellars…).

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Disadvantage
Low efficiency.

Fuel Cells

Figure 3. Fuel Cell operation (from Wikipedia)

How they work

Hydrocarbon fuel generates 𝐻2 gas which then generates two 𝐻 + ions and 2 electrons

The two electrons from the latter reaction flows through an exterior circuit and reaches an 𝑂2 rich
environment

The electrons then "attach" to the oxygen molecule and give an 𝑂2−− ion

This ion, given its relatively larger molar weight, is slower in movement than its 𝐻 + counterpart

Thus, the hydrogen ion moves faster through a porous membrane (or electrolyte) to reach the oxygen ion

They "pair up" and form the water molecule 𝐻2 𝑂

This arrangement provides two beneficial outputs: water and electricity

Advantages
 No pollution
 No need for (excessive) mechanical energy
 Modular: comes in various sizes (from pocket sizes to room sizes!)

Disadvantages
 High cost
 Relatively low efficiency

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Battery Electric Storage System (BESS)

Figure 4. How BESS works (from solarcentral.com)

How it works
Similar to fuel cells: instead of hydrogen and oxygen we use two different metallic electrodes and an
electrolyte solution (liquid)

The reaction between the electrodes and the electrolyte generates electricity

Advantages
 Relatively high energy density
 Modular
 Mature technology
 Relatively easy to use

Disadvantages
 Pollutes the environment
 Has a limited cycle life: after a certain number of charging and discharging cycles, they "die"

Short-term Storage
Superconductor Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)

Figure 5. What SMES looks like (from energystoragesense.org)

What is it?
A super-cooled (2°K = -271°C) coil in a cryostat (liquid helium or nitrogen in a capsule).

How it works
The superconducting coil stores magnetic energy.

Advantages
 High cycle life
 Relatively low charging time (compared to batteries)

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Disadvantages
Relatively low capacity

Supercapacitors

Figure 6. What Supercapacitors look like (from intechopen.com)

How they work

Capacitors store energy (but very low capacity)

Supercapacitors have a much larger storage capacity than ordinary capacitors

Advantage
(A sort of an advantage) only type of storage technique that is purely electrical.

Disadvantage
Relatively low specific energy capacity. However, research aims to increase this capacity for it to be used in
vehicles.

Flywheel Energy Storage System (FESS)

Figure 7. How FESS works (from intechopen.com)

How it works
When supply is higher than demand (we are talking about vehicles and small machines, not power grids!), the
flywheel is set in motion and thus stores kinetic energy.

When demand is higher than supply, the flywheel is set free and so it turns the rotor of the generator, thus
generating electricity.

Magnetic bearings and vacuum help reduce losses.

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Design considerations
The flywheel is a rotating mass: safety issues with high mass or high speeds

We generally use induction motors due to their low cost

Faster motors are needed for this application because the stored kinetic energy is proportional square value
of speed (𝜔2 ), thus we use the lowest number of poles (𝑝 = 1, pole pair)

Advantages
 High efficiency
 Low cost
 Long period of life
 Immune to temperature fluctuations
 Low footprint
 Can withstand harsh conditions
 No "cycle life effect" (doesn't have a cycle life)

Control of Storage Systems (Power Management)

Question: How do storage systems detect if supply is higher than demand or vice versa?

Answer: We need a regulation/feedback system

Q: But how can we do that?

A: We use DC/DC, AC/DC and DC/AC converters (actuators) in conjunction with energy sources and they are
regulated or controlled via power sensors.

Q: Can you give me an example?

A: Here you go, an example of SMES control system (notice the control is on both the inverter (DC/AC) and
the chopper (DC/DC)):

Figure 8. Control of SMES (from intechopen.com)

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Chapter 2: Fuel Cells

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Chapter 3: Supercapacitor Energy Storage Systems
A Q&A about supercapacitors

Q: OK… so what is this supercapacitor?

A: It's super and it's a capacitor… duh… In other words, it's a capacitor that has huge capacity (C>1000F!!)

Q: But, how does it work?

A/Q: Well, do you even know how a capacitor works? Because, supercapacitors are essentially capacitors.

Q: … Err, yeah… but can you help me refresh my memory…?

A: Sure.

Let's make a simple analogy with something familiar, like plumbing.

Think of a capacitor as a tank. And think of a generator as where water comes from. Here's a diagram to
picture things for you:

And here's a go-along table to tie things together:

Electricity Plumbing
Generator Water Source (Not shown)
Switch A Entry Valve
Switch B Out Valve
Capacitor Tank

So, imagine with me here…

The out valve is closed for now. We keep pumping water until the tank fills up, and then we open the out
valve and close the entry valve. Water comes gushing out with immense power then stops when the tank
becomes empty.

Likewise, we close both switches A and B. The capacitance 'fills up' with electrical charges due to the buildup
of electrons and 'holes' on both sides of its plates (I'll talk about its structure in a moment). Then when we
open either switch, the current flow stops. But, if we were to connect the capacitor to, say, a resistance, it
will release the charge that it built up and 'dump' it to the resistance (which will transform electricity into
heat) ...

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Q: … but, what is it made of?

A: Hey! You interrupted me when I was just going to talk about it! Where's your manners boy?!

A: Sorry…

A: Never mind…

Back to our explanation…

A capacitor is made up of two plates and an isolator (or the so-called Dielectric).

Figure 9. Capacitor (from Wikipedia)

It's that simple!

Q: I was asking about the Supercapacitor…

A: Oh…

Well, if you understood the capacitor, and what's it's made of, you'll surely be able to understand the SC.

Figure 10. The Supercapacitor (Wikipedia)

The SC has two layers. In other words, it's made up of a stack of two capacitors… But instead of two plates
for each capacitor, we use a plate and an e

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Extra stuff
Online videos
o PHES: new concept

o CAES: general idea behind compressed air power generation

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