Module 03-12 Electrical Fundamentals: DC Motor - Generation Theory

AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 03 – Electrical fundamentals
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 12 – DC motor – Generation theory

Level 1  2  3
Module 03-12
Electrical Fundamentals
DC Motor - Generation Theory
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Table of contents
I. BASIC MOTOR AND GENERATION THEORY .................................................................................................................................................................4

1. GENERATORS AND MOTORS: ..................................................................................................................................................................................4
2. FARADAY’S LAW: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................4
3. GENERATOR THEORY:...............................................................................................................................................................................................6
4. ALTERNATORS EXAMPLES: ...................................................................................................................................................................................10
4.1. Revolving-armature alternators: ....................................................................................................................................................................................10
4.2. Revolving-field alternators: ............................................................................................................................................................................................11
4.3. Alternator rotors: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................12
4.4. Alternator characteristics and limitations: ......................................................................................................................................................................14
5. SINGLE PHASE, TWO PHASES AND THREE PHASE ALTERNATORS: ..............................................................................................................14
5.1. Single phase: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
5.2. Two-phase alternators: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................15
5.3 Three-phase alternator ...................................................................................................................................................................................................17
6. COMMUTATION – DC MOTORS: ..............................................................................................................................................................................19
6.1. Two-coil DC generator: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................20
6.2. Multi-coil DC generator: .................................................................................................................................................................................................20
II. CONSTRUCTION AND PURPOSE OF COMPONENTS IN DC GENERATOR .............................................................................................................23
1. DC GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION: ........................................................................................................................................................................23
2. DC GENERATOR EXAMPLE: ...................................................................................................................................................................................24
III. OPERATION OFF, AND FACTORS AFFECTING OUTPUT AND DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW IN DC GENERATORS .................................26
1. ARMATURE REACTION: ...........................................................................................................................................................................................26
1.1. Magnetic neutral plane: .................................................................................................................................................................................................26
1.2. Correction: .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................28
2. USING COMMUTATING POLES OR INTERPOLES: ................................................................................................................................................28
IV. OPERATION OFF, AND FACTORS AFFECTING OUTPUT POWER, TORQUE, SPEED AND DIRECTION OF ROTATION OF DC MOTORS .....30
1. FACTORS AFFECTING OUTPUT POWER:..............................................................................................................................................................30
1.1. Efficiency: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
1.2. Power losses: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
2. FACTORS AFFECTING output TORQUE, SPEED AND DIRECTION OF ROTATION OF DC MOTORS: ............................................................34
2.1. Relationship between output torque, angular speed and power: ..................................................................................................................................34
2.2. Torque and speed curves: .............................................................................................................................................................................................35
2.3. Direction of rotation:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................37
V. SERIES WOUND, SHUNT WOUND AND COMPOUND MOTORS ...............................................................................................................................38
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1. SERIES WOUND MOTORS/GENERATORS: ...........................................................................................................................................................38
2. SHUNT WOUND MOTORS/GENERATORS: ............................................................................................................................................................39
3. COMPOUND-WOUND MOTORS/GENERATORS: ...................................................................................................................................................40
VI. STARTER GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................44
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I. BASIC MOTOR AND GENERATION THEORY
1. GENERATORS AND MOTORS:
 Generators:
Generators are devices that convert energy from a mechanicall form to an electrical form.
 Input: torque,
 Outpout: electricity.
 Motors:
Motors are devices that convert energy from an electrical form to a mechanical form.
 Input: electricity,
 Outpout: torque.
2. FARADAY’S LAW:
Accordingly, Faraday's law states that induced voltage can be determined by the number of turns in a coil, and how fast the coil cuts through a
magnetic field. Therefore, the more turns in a coil or the stronger the magnetic field, the more voltage induced.
In addition, current changes direction depending on which way it cuts across a magnetic field. As depicted in Figure, a coil cutting through a
basic magnetic field in a clockwise direction will at first result in a current with positive polarity, but as it cuts across the same field in the opposite
direction during the second half of its turn, the polarity becomes negative.
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If S is the area of the loop, N the number f loops, B the induction field, the induction flux across the loop is:
dΦ
Φ = NSBcosωt = Φ0cosωt  EMF = - = ωΦ0 sinωt
dt
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The force applied in the two segments perpendicular to the magnetic fields is equal to: F = ilB where “i” is the intensity and l the distance
between the two segments.
Hence, the mechanical torque acting the loop is M = iSB = Φ0i where S is the area of the loop.
Right-hand rule:
To find the direction of motion of a conductor, extend the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of your right hand so they are at right angles to
each other.
If the forefinger is pointed in the direction of magnetic flux (north to south) and the middle finger is pointed in the direction of current flow in the
conductor, the thumb will point in the direction the conductor will move.
Right-hand rule
3. GENERATOR THEORY:
As a conductor cuts across the lines of force in a magnetic field, it generates a current. This method of inducing a current is called induction. There
are three rules for induction:
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 When a conductor cuts through lines of force, it induces an electromotive force (EMF), or voltage.
 Either the magnetic field or the conductor needs to be moving for this to happen.
 If the direction of the cutting across the magnetic field changes, the direction of the induced EMF also changes.
Fundamentally, electric generators operate on the same principle, regardless of whether they produce AC or DC. Internally, all generators produce
AC. The generator’s operation is based on Faraday’s law of EM induction.
In brief, if a coil (or winding) is linked to a varying magnetic field, then an electromotive force (EMF), or voltage is induced across the coil.
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The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic field.
The pole pieces are shaped and positioned as shown to concentrate the magnetic field as close as possible to the wire loop. The loop of wire
that rotates through the field is called the ARMATURE. The ends of the armature loop are connected to rings called SLIP RINGS. They rotate
with the armature. The brushes, usually made of carbon, with wires attached to them, ride against the rings.
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The generated voltage appears across these brushes.
The elementary generator produces a voltage in the following manner. The armature loop is rotated in a clockwise direction. The initial or
starting point is shown at position A. (This will be considered the zero-degree position.)
At 0º the armature loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field. The black and white conductors of the loop are moving parallel to the field. The
instant the conductors are moving parallel to the magnetic field, they do not cut any lines of flux. Therefore, no emf is induced in the conductors,
and the meter at position A indicates zero. This position is called the NEUTRAL PLANE.
As the armature loop rotates from position A (0º) to position B (90º), the conductors cut through more and more lines of flux, at a continually
increasing angle. At 90º they are cutting through a maximum number of lines of flux and at maximum angle. The result is that between 0º and
90º, the induced emf in the conductors builds up from zero to a maximum (negative) value.
Observe that from 0º to 90º, the conductor cuts DOWN through the field. At the same time the white conductor cuts UP through the field. The
induced emf in the conductors are series-adding. This means the resultant voltage across the brushes (the terminal voltage) is the sum of the
two induced voltages. The meter at position B reads maximum value.
As the armature loop continues rotating from 90º (position B) to 180º (position C), the conductors which were cutting through a maximum
number of lines of flux at position B now cut through fewer lines. They are again moving parallel to the magnetic field at position C. They no
longer cut through any lines of flux. As the armature rotates from 90º to 180º, the induced voltage will decrease to zero in the same manner that
it increased during the rotation from 0º to 90º. The meter again reads zero. From 0º to 180º the conductors of the armature loop have been
moving in the same direction through the magnetic field. Therefore, the polarity of the induced voltage has remained the same. This is shown by
points A through C on the graph.
As the loop rotates beyond 180º (position C), through 270º (position D), and back to the initial or starting point (position A), the direction of the
cutting action of the conductors through the magnetic field reverses. Now the black conductor cuts UP through the field while the white
conductor cuts DOWN through the field. As a result, the polarity of the induced voltage reverses.
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4. ALTERNATORS EXAMPLES:
4.1. Revolving-armature alternators:
In the rotating-armature alternator the armature rotates in a stationary magnetic field as shown in figure. In the alternator, the generated AC is brought
to the load unchanged by means of slip rings.
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4.2. Revolving-field alternators:
The rotating-field alternator has a stationary armature winding and a rotating-field winding as shown in figure below.
The advantage of having a stationary armature winding is that the generated voltage can be connected directly to the load. A rotating armature
requires slip rings and brushes to conduct the current from the armature to the load.
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The armature, brushes, and slip rings are difficult to insulate, and arc-over and short circuits can result at high voltages. For this reason, high-voltage
alternators are usually of the rotating-field type. The stationary armature, or stator, of this type of alternator holds the windings that are cut by the
rotating magnetic field. The voltage generated in the armature as a result of this cutting action is the AC power that will be applied to the load.
4.3. Alternator rotors:
There are two types of rotors used in rotating-field alternators, the turbine-driven rotor and the salient-pole rotor.
 Turbine-driven rotor:
Four-pole turbine-driven rotor

The windings in the turbine-driven rotor are arranged to form two or four distinct poles. The windings are firmly embedded in slots to
withstand the tremendous centrifugal forces encountered at high speeds.
 Salient-pole rotor:
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Salient-4-poles generator
The salient-pole rotor is used in low-speed alternators.
The salient-pole rotor often consists of several separately wound pole pieces, bolted to the frame of the rotor.
If you could compare the physical size of the two types of rotors with the same electrical characteristics, you would see that the
salient-pole rotor would have a greater diameter.
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At the same number of revolutions per minute, it has a greater centrifugal force than does the turbine-driven rotor. To reduce this
force to a safe level so that the windings will not be thrown out of the machine, the salient pole is used only in low-speed designs.
4.4. Alternator characteristics and limitations:
Alternators are rated according to the voltage they are designed to produce and the maximum current they are capable of providing.
The maximum current that can be supplied by an alternator depends upon the maximum heating loss that can be sustained in the armature. This
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heating loss (which is an RI power loss) acts to heat the conductors, and if excessive, destroys the insulation. Thus, alternators are rated in terms of
this current and in terms of the voltage output: the alternator rating in small units is in volt- amperes; in large units it is kilovolt-amperes. When an
alternator leaves the factory, it is already destined to do a very specific job.
5. SINGLE PHASE, TWO PHASES AND THREE PHASE ALTERNATORS:

5.1. Single phase:
A generator that produces a single, continuously alternating voltage is known as a SINGLE-PHASE alternator. All of the alternators that have been
discussed so far fit this definition. The stator (armature) windings are connected in series. The individual voltages, therefore, add to produce a single-
phase AC voltage.
Single-phase alternators are found in many applications. They are most often used when the loads being driven are relatively light. The reason for
this will be more apparent as we get into multiphase alternators (also called polyphase).
Power that is used in homes, shops, and ships to operate portable tools and small appliances is single-phase power. Single-phase power alternators
always generate single-phase power. However, all single-phase power does not come from single-phase alternators. This will sound more
reasonable to you as we get into the next subjects.
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Single phase current
5.2. Two-phase alternators:
Two phase implies two voltages if we apply our new definition of phase. And, it’s that simple. A two-phase alternator is designed to produce two
completely separate voltages.
Each voltage, by itself, may be considered as a single-phase voltage.
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Figure shows a simplified two-pole, two-phase alternator.
Note that the windings of the two phases are physically at right angles (90º) to each other. You would expect the outputs of each phase to be 90º
apart, which they are. The graph shows the two phases to be 90º apart, with Phase a and Phase b.
Note: By using our original definition of phase (from previous modules), we could say that A and B are 90º out of phase.
There will always be 90º between the phases of a two-phase alternator. This is by design.
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Now, let’s go back and see the similarities and differences between our original (single-phase) alternators and this new one (two-phase). Note that
the principles applied are not new. This alternator works the same as the others we have discussed.
The stator in figure consists of two single-phase windings completely separated from each other. Each winding is made up of two windings that are
connected in series so that their voltages add. The rotor is identical to that used in the single-phase alternator. In the left-hand schematic, the rotor
poles are opposite all the windings of phase b.
Therefore, the voltage induced in phase b is maximum, and the voltage induced in phase a is zero. As the rotor continues rotating clockwise, it moves
away from the “b” windings and approaches the “a” windings. As a result, the voltage induced in phase “b” decreases from its maximum value, and
the voltage induced in phase “a” increases from zero.
In the right-hand schematic, the rotor poles are opposite the windings of phase “b”.
Now the voltage induced in phase b is maximum, whereas the voltage induced in phase “a” has dropped to zero.
Notice that a 90-degree rotation of the rotor corresponds to one-quarter of a cycle, or 90 electrical degrees. The waveform picture shows the voltages
induced in phase 1 and 2 for one cycle.
The obvious advantage, so far, is that we have two separate output voltages. There is some saving in having one set of bearings, one rotor, one
housing, and so on, to do the work of two.
There is the disadvantage of having twice as many stator coils, which require a larger and more complex stator.
5.3 Three-phase alternator
A three phase, or polyphase circuit, is used in most aircraft alternators, instead of a single or two phase alternator. The three phase alternator has
three single phase windings spaced so that the voltage induced in each winding is 120° out of phase with the voltages in the other two windings.
A schematic diagram of a three phase stator showing all the coils becomes complex and difficult to see what is actually happening..
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A simplified schematic diagram, showing each of three phases, is illustrated in figure below.
The rotor is omitted for simplicity (here is showing by a grey arrow).
The waveforms of voltage are shown to the right of the schematic.
The three voltages are 120° apart and are similar to the voltages which would be generated by three single phase alternators whose voltages are out
of phase by angles of 120°.
The three phases are independent of each other.
Rather than have six leads from the three phase alternator, one of the leads from each phase may be connected to form a common junction. The
stator is then called wye or star connected.
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The common lead may or may not be brought out of the alternator. If it is brought out, it is called the neutral lead. The simplified schematic shows a
wye connected stator with the common lead not brought out.
Each load is connected across two phases in series.
Thus, (common, 1, 2) is connected across phases 1 and 2 in series; (common, 1, 3) is connected across phases 1 and 3 in series; and (common, 2,
3) is connected across phases 2 and 3 in series.
Therefore, the voltage across each load is larger than the voltage across a single phase.
The total voltage, or line voltage, across any two phases is the vector sum of the individual phase voltages.
6. COMMUTATION – DC MOTORS:
If DC is required, a device to rectify, or change, the AC to DC is needed. The DC generators use a device called a commutator just for such a
purpose.
Replace the brushes with slip rings and you get a DC generator. Notice the voltage is not steady. The coil is shown at the top and bottom of the shaft.
A DC generator consists of a number of conducting coils and a magnetic field. The coils are called the armature. Relative motion between the coils
and magnetic field induces voltage in the coils. This action is called EMF. The required DC is provided by an external source called an exciter.
Commutation is the process by which a DC voltage output is taken from an armature that has an AC voltage induced in it.
Remember:
You should remember from our discussion of the elementary DC generator that the commutator mechanically reverses the armature loop
connections to the external circuit. This occurs at the same instant that the voltage polarity in the armature loop reverses.
A DC voltage is applied to the load because the output connections are reversed as each commutator segment passes under a brush.
The segments are insulated from each other.
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6.1. Two-coil DC generator:
The commutation mechanically reverses the armature loop connections to the external circuit. This occurs at the same instant that the voltage polarity
in the armature loop reverses.
Commutation occurs simultaneously in the two coils that are briefly short-circuited by the brushes. For example, the first coil is short-circuited by
the negative brush; opposite coil, is short-circuited by the positive brush.
The brushes are positioned on the commutator so that each coil is short-circuited as it moves through its own electrical neutral plane. As you
have seen previously, there is no voltage generated in the coil at that time.
Therefore, no sparking can occur between the commutator and the brush. Sparking between the brushes and the commutator is an indication of
improper commutation.
6.2. Multi-coil DC generator:

If we increase the number of turns and arrange them as shown in figure below, we can smooth out the variations in voltage.
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Multicoil DC generator
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II. CONSTRUCTION AND PURPOSE OF COMPONENTS IN DC GENERATOR
1. DC GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION:
The rotor is a cylindrical body and has two (insulated) conductors embedded in its surface. At one end of the rotor the two conductors are
connected to a pair of copper segments; these semicircular segments are mounted on the shaft of the rotor. Hence, they rotate together with the
rotor.
At the other end of the rotor, the two conductors are joined to form a coil. Assume that an external torque is applied to the shaft so that the rotor
rotates at a certain speed.
The rotor winding formed by the two conductors experiences a periodically varying magnetic field, and hence an EMF is induced across the
winding.
The coils where the EMFs are induced are called armature windings or armature circuits. One of these two components is stationary (stator),
and the other is a rotational part (rotor) driven by an external torque.
Conceptually, it is immaterial which of the two components is to rotate because, in either case, the armature circuits always “see” a varying
magnetic field. However, practical considerations lead to the common design that for AC generators, the field windings are mounted on the rotor
and the armature windings on the stator. In contrast, for DC generators, the field windings are on the stator and armature on the rotor.
 Armature windings: the conductor in which the output voltage is induced.
 Prime mover: mechanical work which turns the rotor may be a steam turbine, gas turbine, diesel engine, etc...
 Field windings: the conductors used to produce the electromagnetic field (needs a DC power supply).
 Stator: stationary housing of the generator.
 Rotor: rotates inside the stator, moved by a prime mover (steam turbine, gas turbine, internal combustion engine, etc…).
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 Sliding contacts (slip-rings and brushes): used to conduct the field or armature current to and from the rotor.
2. DC GENERATOR EXAMPLE:
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The various parts of a DC generator are listed below, together with its function:
 Main frame:
It is sometimes called the yoke or housing. It functions to support all other components and to complete the magnetic path between
the field poles.
 Field poles:
They are made of many thin lamination of iron, joined together and bolted to the inside of the frame. Its function is to support the
field winding, and to concentrate the magnetic flux produced.
 Field windings:
They are copper wire coils mounted on the pole pieces such that when they are energized, a magnetic field will be set up between
the poles.
The electrical connections of the field windings determine the type of DC generator.
 End housing:
These are supports or the two ends of the main frame, which contains bearings for the armature. The front housing will also support
the brush assembly.
 Brush holder:
Secured to the front end housing by clamps, it also supports to the brushes and their connecting wires.
 Armature assembly:
It is the rotating element within the generator. It is made up of a shaft, an armature windings and a commutator.
The armature core is laminated and slots are cut to receive the armature windings.
The armature windings are connected to the commutator segments, whereby the generated EMF in the armature windings are
being taped out to the external circuit by means of brushes.
 Brushes:
They write on commutator and carry the generated EMF to the load. They are made of carbon and are housed in the brush holders.
A flexible braided conductor, called a pigtail, connects each brush to the external circuit.
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III. OPERATION OFF, AND FACTORS AFFECTING OUTPUT AND DIRECTION OF CURRENT FLOW IN DC
GENERATORS
If the magnetic field windings of a DC machine are connected to the power source and the rotor is turned by an external means, a voltage will be induced in
the conductors of the rotor.
This voltage is rectified and can be supplied to external loads. However, if a load is connected, a current will flow through the armature winding. This current
produces its own magnetic field that distorts the original magnetic field from the machine’s poles. This distortion of the machine’s flux as the load increases
is called armature reaction.
1. ARMATURE REACTION:
1.1. Magnetic neutral plane:

The magnetic neutral plane is the plane within the machine where the velocity of the rotor wires is exactly parallel to the magnetic flux lines, so that the
induced voltage in the conductors in the plane is exactly zero.
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We saw that a brush contacting the coils travelling parallel to the field flux will find a minimum voltage difference between the adjacent commutator
segments. This condition could exist only if there was no current flowing in the coils of the armature; but, as we know, when armature current does
flow, magnetic flux will surround the coils and deflect the lines of the field flux.
 Figure A: With no current flowing in the armature coils, the neutral plane (a fine perpendicular to the lines of flux) lies directly over
the brushes.
 Figure B: Current flowing in the armature coils produces a magnetic field around each winding of the coil.
 Figure C: The reaction of the two fields shifts the neutral plane away from the brushes. There will be a voltage between the adjacent
commutator segments, and arcing will occur at the brushes.
The distortion of the magnetic flux between the field poles in an electric generator or motor cause by the magnetic field produced by current flowing
in the winding of the armature.
The current flowing trough the armature increases as the load increases the distortion becomes greater with larger loads.
The lines of flux in the field coil flow in a horizontal path from north to south and induce voltage into the armature. However, as this is done, magnetic
fields are produced in the armature, and tend to distort or bend the lines of flux produced by the field coil. Armature windings of a generator are
spaced so that during rotation there are certain positions when the brushes contact two adjacent segments on the commutator which shorts the
armature winding.
When the magnetic field is not distorted there is no voltage induced in the shorted windings with no harmful results.
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When the field is distorted by armature reaction, a voltage is induced in the shorted windings and sparking takes place between the brushes and
commutator. Commutator becomes pitted, wear on brushes becomes excessive and the output is reduced.
 To summarize, the neutral plane perpendicular to the flux lines will be shifted from alignment with the brushes, so that there is now a
potential difference, or a voltage, between the adjacent segments; and when the brush shorts them out, arcing will occur.
This displacement of the neutral plane is called armature reaction, and it varies with the amount of current flowing in the armature,
which is, of course, the load current.
1.2. Correction:
To correct this, the brushes are set so that the plane of the coils being shored is perpendicular to the distorted field. This is accomplished by moving
the brushes forward in the direction of rotation.
This operation is called shifting the brushes to the neutral plan. Neutral plane is the position where the plane of the two opposite coils is perpendicular
to the magnetic field.
2. USING COMMUTATING POLES OR INTERPOLES:

Some generators use a special poles called “interpole”; a field pole in a compound-wound generator used to minimize armature reaction. It has the
same polarity as the next main pole in the direction of rotation.
To avoid sparkling at the brushes while the machine’s load changes, instead of adjusting the brushes’ position, it is possible to introduce small poles
(commutating poles or interpoles) between the main ones to make the voltage in the commutating wires to be zero.
Such poles are located directly over the conductors being commutated and provide the flux that can exactly cancel the voltage in the coil undergoing
commutation. Interpoles do not change the operation of the machine since they are so small that only affect few conductors being commutated. Flux
weakening is unaffected.
Interpole windings are connected in series with the rotor windings. As the load increases and the rotor current increases, the magnitude of neutral-
plane shift and the size of Ldi/dt effects increase too increasing the voltage in the conductors undergoing commutation.
However, the interpole flux increases too producing a larger voltage in the conductors that opposes the voltage due to neutral-plane shift. Therefore,
both voltages cancel each other over a wide range of loads. This approach works for both DC motors and generators.
The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the next upcoming main pole in a generator;
The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the previous main pole in a motor.
The use of interpoles is very common because they correct the sparkling problems of DC machines at a low cost. However, since interpoles do
nothing with the flux distribution under the pole faces, flux-weakening problem is still present.
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The magnetic flux produced by the interpole causes the current in the armature to change direction as the armature winding
rotates. It cancels the electromagnetic fields produced by the armature winding
Interpoles are connected in series with the load. The magnetic strength of the interpole varies with generator load. The magnetic
field of the interpole counteracts the effects of the field around the armature windings and minimizes distortion. Interpoles keep the
neutral plane in the same position for all loads.
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IV. OPERATION OFF, AND FACTORS AFFECTING OUTPUT POWER, TORQUE, SPEED AND DIRECTION OF
ROTATION OF DC MOTORS
1. FACTORS AFFECTING OUTPUT POWER:

Unfortunately not all electrical power is converted to mechanical power by a motor and not all mechanical power is converted to electrical power by a
generator.
1.1. Efficiency:
The efficiency η of a DC machine is:
Pout P - Ploss
η= × 100% = out × 100%
Pin Pin
Where:
Pin : input power,
Pout : output power,
Ploss : power losses
1.2. Power losses:

There are three categories of losses occurring in DC machines:
 Electrical or copper losses:
The power lost in the form of heat in the armature winding of a generator is known as COPPER LOSS. Heat is generated any time
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current flows in a conductor. Copper loss is an I R loss, which increases as the square of the current increases.
The resistive losses in the armature and field windings of the machine are:
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 Armature loss: PArm = R ArmI2Arm
 Field loss: PField = R Field I2Field

Where IArm and IField are armature and field currents and R Arm and RField are armature and field (winding) resistances usually
measured at normal operating temperature.
 Core losses:
 Eddy current losses:
The core of a generator armature is made from soft iron, which is a conducting material with desirable magnetic
characteristics. Any conductor will have currents induced in it when it is rotated in a magnetic field. These currents that are
induced in the generator armature core are called EDDY CURRENTS.
The power dissipated in the form of heat, as a result of the eddy currents, is considered a loss. Eddy currents, just like any
other electrical currents, are affected by the resistance of the material in which the currents flow.
The resistance of any material is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. The illustration shows the eddy currents
induced in an armature core that is a solid piece of soft iron.
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This process is called lamination. The currents in each piece of the laminated core are considerably less than in the solid
core because the resistance of the pieces is much higher. (Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area.).
The currents in the individual pieces of the laminated core are so small that the sum of the individual currents is much less
than the total of eddy currents in the solid iron core.
As you can see, Eddy current losses are kept low when the core material is made up of many thin sheets of metal.
Laminations in a small generator armature may be as thin as 1/64 inch. The laminations are insulated from each other by a
thin coat of lacquer or, in some instances, simply by the oxidation of the surfaces.
Oxidation is caused by contact with the air while the laminations are being annealed. The insulation value need not be high
because the voltages induced are very small. Most generators use armatures with laminated cores to reduce eddy current
losses
 Hysteresis losses:
Hysteresis loss is a heat loss caused by the magnetic properties of the armature. When an armature core is in a magnetic
field, the magnetic particles of the core tend to line up with the magnetic field.
When the armature core is rotating, its magnetic field keeps changing direction. The continuous movement of the magnetic
particles, as they try to align themselves with the magnetic field, produces molecular friction.
This, in turn, produces heat. This heat is transmitted to the armature windings.
The heat causes armature resistances to increase. To compensate for hysteresis losses, heat-treated silicon steel
laminations are used in most DC generator armatures.
After the steel has been formed to the proper shape, the laminations are heated and allowed to cool.
This annealing process reduces the hysteresis loss to a low value.
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Level 1  2  3
 Mechanical losses:
Rotational or mechanical losses can be caused by bearing friction, brush friction on the commutator, or air friction (called windage),
which is caused by the air turbulence due to armature rotation.
Note:
Careful maintenance can be instrumental in keeping bearing friction to a minimum. Clean bearings and proper lubrication are essential to the
reduction of bearing friction.
Brush friction is reduced by assuring proper brush seating, using proper brushes, and maintaining proper brush tension.
A smooth and clean commutator also aids in the reduction of brush friction.
 Diagram losses:
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2. FACTORS AFFECTING OUTPUT TORQUE, SPEED AND DIRECTION OF ROTATION OF DC MOTORS:

2.1. Relationship between output torque, angular speed and power:
If a force is allowed to act through a distance, it is doing mechanical work. Similarly, if torque is allowed to act through a rotational distance, it is doing
work.
Power is the work per unit time. However, time and rotational distance are related by the angular speed where each revolution results in the
circumference of the circle being travelled by the force that is generating the torque.
This means that torque that is causing the angular speed to increase is doing work and the generated power may be calculated generally as:
Output power = Output torque x Angular speed
Pout =  out  ω
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Level 1  2  3
Mathematically, the equation may be rearranged to compute torque for a given power output. However, in practice there is no direct way to measure
power whereas torque and angular speed can be measured directly.
So, if the output power decreases (due to losses), the product Output torque x Angular speed decreases.
η
 out × ω = × 100%
Pin
2.2. Torque and speed curves:
In order to effectively design with DC. motors, it is necessary to understand their characteristic curves. For every motor, there is a specific
Torque/Speed curve and Power curve.
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Level 1  2  3
The graph above shows a torque/speed curve of a typical DC motor. Note that torque is inversely proportional to the speed of the output shaft. In
other words, there is a trade off between how much torque a motor delivers, and how fast the output shaft spins. Motor characteristics are frequently
given as two points on this graph:
 The stall torque  s represents the point on the graph at which the torque is a maximum, but the shaft is not rotating.
 The no load speed n is the maximum output speed of the motor (when no torque is applied to the output shaft).
The curve is then approximated by connecting these two points with a line, whose equation can be written in terms of torque or angular velocity as
equations:
ω s
 motor =  s -
ωn
ω
ωmotor = ( s -  ) n
 s
Recall that earlier we defined power as the product of torque and angular velocity. This corresponds to the area of a rectangle under the torque/speed
curve with one corner at the origin and another corner at a point on the curve (see figures below). Due to the linear inverse relationship between
torque and speed, the maximum power occurs at the point where:
ωn 
ω = and = s.
2 2
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2.3. Direction of rotation:
The direction of rotation of a series motor can be changed by changing the polarity of either the armature or field winding. It is important to
remember that if you simply changed the polarity of the applied voltage, you would be changing the polarity of both field and armature windings
and the motor's rotation would remain the same.
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Level 1  2  3
V. SERIES WOUND, SHUNT WOUND AND COMPOUND MOTORS

1. SERIES WOUND MOTORS/GENERATORS:
In the series-wound generator, shown in figure, the field windings are connected in series with the armature. Current that flows in the armature flows
through the external circuit and through the field windings.
The external circuit connected to the generator is called the load circuit.
A series-wound generator uses very low resistance field coils, which consist of a few turns of large diameter wire.
The voltage output increases as the load circuit starts drawing more current. Under low-load current conditions, the current that flows in the load and
through the generator is small. Since small current means that a small magnetic field is set up by the field poles, only a small voltage is induced in the
armature.
If the resistance of the load decreases, the load current increases. Under this condition, more current flows through the field. This increases the
magnetic field and increases the output voltage.
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Level 1  2  3
A series-wound DC generator has the characteristic that the output voltage varies with load current. This is undesirable in most applications. For this
reason, this type of generator is rarely used in everyday practice.
2. SHUNT WOUND MOTORS/GENERATORS:
In this field winding is connected in parallel with the armature conductors and have the full voltage of the generator applied across them. The field
coils consist of many turns of small wire. They are connected in parallel with the load. In other words, they are connected across the output voltage of
the armature.
Current in the field windings of a shunt-wound generator is independent of the load current (currents in parallel branches are independent of each
other). Since field current, and therefore field strength, is not affected by load current, the output voltage remains more nearly constant than does the
output voltage of the series-wound generator.
In actual use, the output voltage in a DC shunt-wound generator varies inversely as load current varies. The output voltage decreases as load current
increases because the voltage drop across the armature resistance increases (E = RI).
In a series-wound generator, output voltage varies directly with load current. In the shunt-wound generator, output voltage varies inversely with load
current. A combination of the two types can overcome the disadvantages of both. This combination of windings is called the compound-wound DC
generator.
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Level 1  2  3
3. COMPOUND-WOUND MOTORS/GENERATORS:
Compound-wound generators have a series-field winding in addition to a shunt-field winding, as shown in figure. The shunt and series windings are
wound on the same pole pieces. They can be either short-shunt or long-shunt as shown in figures. In a compound generator, the shunt field is
stronger than the series field.
Compound-wound long shunt generator
When series field aids the shunt field, generator is said to be commutatively-compounded. On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt field,
the generator is said to be differentially compounded.
In the compound-wound generator when load current increases, the armature voltage decreases just as in the shunt-wound generator.
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Level 1  2  3
This causes the voltage applied to the shunt-field winding to decrease, which results in a decrease in the magnetic field. This same increase in load
current, since it flows through the series winding, causes an increase in the magnetic field produced by that winding.
Compound-wound short shunt generator
VOLTAGE OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

By proportioning the two fields so that the decrease in the shunt field is just compensated by the increase in the series field, the output voltage
remains constant. This is shown in figure, which shows the voltage characteristics of the series-, shunt-, and compound-wound generators.
As you can see, by proportioning the effects of the two fields (series and shunt), a compound-wound generator provides a constant output voltage
under varying load conditions. Actual curves are seldom, if ever, as perfect as shown.
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Level 1  2  3
Series-wound DC generator
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VI. STARTER GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION
The modern starter motor is either a permanent-magnet or a series-parallel wound direct current electric motor with a starter solenoid (similar to a relay)
mounted on it. When current from the starting battery is applied to the solenoid, usually through a key-operated switch, the solenoid engages a lever that
pushes out the drive pinion on the starter driveshaft and meshes the pinion with the starter ring gear on the flywheel of the engine.
The solenoid also closes high-current contacts for the starter motor, which begins to turn. Once the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened, a
spring in the solenoid assembly pulls the pinion gear away from the ring gear, and the starter motor stops.
The starter's pinion is clutched to its driveshaft through an overrunning sprag clutch which permits the pinion to transmit drive in only one direction. In this
manner, drive is transmitted through the pinion to the flywheel ring gear, but if the pinion remains engaged (as for example because the operator fails to
release the key as soon as the engine starts, or if there is a short and the solenoid remains engaged), the pinion will spin independently of its driveshaft.
This prevents the engine driving the starter, for such back drive would cause the starter to spin so fast as to fly apart. However, this sprag clutch
arrangement would preclude the use of the starter as a generator if employed in hybrid scheme mentioned above, unless modifications were made.
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Also, a standard starter motor is only designed for intermittent use which would preclude its use as a generator; the electrical components are designed only
to operate for typically under 30 seconds before overheating (by too-slow dissipation of heat from ohmic losses), to save weight and cost.
A typical starter
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Module 03-12 Electrical Fundamentals: DC Motor - Generation Theory

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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 03 – Electrical fundamentals

Category  A  B1  B2  B3 12 – DC motor – Generation theory

DC Motor - Generation Theory

I. BASIC MOTOR AND GENERATION THEORY .................................................................................................................................................................4

1. GENERATORS AND MOTORS:

The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic field.

Four-pole turbine-driven rotor

5. SINGLE PHASE, TWO PHASES AND THREE PHASE ALTERNATORS:

Single phase current

5.2. Two-phase alternators:

Each voltage, by itself, may be considered as a single-phase voltage.

Figure shows a simplified two-pole, two-phase alternator.

5.3 Three-phase alternator

The rotor is omitted for simplicity (here is showing by a grey arrow).

The waveforms of voltage are shown to the right of the schematic.

The three phases are independent of each other.

Each load is connected across two phases in series.

6.1. Two-coil DC generator:

6.2. Multi-coil DC generator:

II. CONSTRUCTION AND PURPOSE OF COMPONENTS IN DC GENERATOR

 Armature windings: the conductor in which the output voltage is induced.

 Stator: stationary housing of the generator.

1.1. Magnetic neutral plane:

2. USING COMMUTATING POLES OR INTERPOLES:

1. FACTORS AFFECTING OUTPUT POWER:

Pin : input power,

Pout : output power,

Ploss : power losses

1.2. Power losses:

 Armature loss: PArm = R ArmI2Arm

 Field loss: PField = R Field I2Field

This annealing process reduces the hysteresis loss to a low value.

2. FACTORS AFFECTING OUTPUT TORQUE, SPEED AND DIRECTION OF ROTATION OF DC MOTORS:

2.3. Direction of rotation:

V. SERIES WOUND, SHUNT WOUND AND COMPOUND MOTORS

2. SHUNT WOUND MOTORS/GENERATORS:

Compound-wound long shunt generator

Compound-wound short shunt generator

VOLTAGE OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

VI. STARTER GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION

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