CHAPTER 2

SURVEY

Power quality is one of the most concerned areas in electric power system. The power
quality has serious implication for consumers, utilities and manufacturers. The technological
advancement led to complete change in the nature of electric load. The impact of power quality
problem is increasingly sensed by industrial, commercial and residential consumers. Some power
quality and voltage quality problems such as voltage sag, voltage swell; transients, harmonics etc.
have been presented. The solution to the problems can be done either from customer side or from
utility side by using custom power devices. On the other hand, recent developments in power
electronics and semiconductor technology have led improvements in power electronic systems.
Hence, different circuit configurations namely multilevel inverters have become popular and
considerable interest by researcher are given on them. A static semiconductor inverter circuit
performs electrical energy inverting transformation.
As we know that inverters are finding their extensive uses now a days. Previously they
were only used in some main applications, which would be large scale and expensive. But now a
days, inverters are like a small compulsory electronic device, on which many of our other main
electronic equipment depend. They are extensively used, not only because of their universal
function of converting DC power to AC power, but also because of their high efficiency, reduced
power costs and versatile applications.
These days, they are being used extensively in applications where there is a frequent power
cut off, because in case of power failures, inverters are a very good and efficient power remedies.
For every classification, we form some basis first, depending upon which we can further categorize
our results for easier understanding and a better approach. This is done in order to promote better
understanding and a more extensive classification of different things.
In the same way, we primarily classify inverters on the basis of their output characteristics.
So there are three different types of outputs we get from inverters, and hence we classify inverters
into three primary classes, which are:
1. The Square Wave inverter.
2. The Modified Sine wave inverter or quasi sine wave inverter.
3. A Pure sine wave inverter
 4. PWM Inverter.
5. Voltage Source Inverter.
6. Current Source Inverter.
7. Three Phase Inverter.

2.1 Square Wave Inverter

A square wave inverter is one of the simplest inverter types, which convert a straight DC
signal to a phase shifting AC signal. But the output is not pure AC, i.e. in the form of a pure sine
wave, but it is a square wave. At the same time they are cheaper as well. The simplest construction
of a square wave inverter can be achieved by using an on-off switch, before a typical voltage
amplifying circuitry like that of a transformer. The output of this type of a circuit is a square wave.

2.11 Circuit Diagram of Square Wave Inverter

Fig 2.1: Circuit Diagram of Square Wave Inverter

2.1.2 Waveform
 Fig 2.2 Waveform

2.1.3 Disadvantages of Square Wave Inverter

Square waves have large amount of harmonics which disturbs the circuit and extra
radiations produces which affects the output.so as a reference point we are not using square wave
but used sine wave as a reference because they don’t have extra electromagnetic waves.
Square wave have instantaneous changing effect at low and high position.it is not achieved
in practical owing to limitation of use of things. Time taken for the rise and fall is considered
when we are talking
2.2 Modified sine wave inverter or Quasi Sine Wave Inverter
The construction of this type of inverter is a bit more complex than a simple square wave
inverter, but still it is a lot simpler than a pure sine wave inverter. A Modified sine wave shows
some pauses before the phase shifting of the wave, i.e. unlike a square it does not shift its phase
abruptly from positive to negative, or unlike a sine wave, does not make a smooth transition from
positive to negative, but takes brief pauses and then shifts its phase.

2.2.1 Circuit Diagram of Quasi Sine Wave Inverter

 Fig 2.3 Circuit Diagram of Modified Sine Wave Inverter

2.2.2 Waveform

Fig 2.4 Waveform of Quasi Sine Wave Inverter

2.2.3 Disadvantages
Lack of power, cannot run the appliances with same power labeled; it’s easy to
damage the machine if customers are not familiar with the operation, the user needs to strictly
follow the manufacturers instructions.
2.3 Pure Sine Wave Inverter
The electrical circuit of a pure sine wave inverter is far more complex than a square
wave or modified sine wave inverter. Another way to obtain a sine output is to obtain a square
wave output from a square wave inverter and then modify this output to achieve a pure sine wave.
 A pure sine wave inverter has several advantages over its previous two forms: More
efficiency, hence consumes less power. They can be adjusted according to your personal power
requirements, since several types are available with different power outputs. The output of a pure
sine wave inverter is very reliable, but at the same time, there is a tradeoff between the price and
reliability.

2.3.1 Circuit Diagram of Pure Sine Wave

Fig 2.5 Circuit Diagram of Pure Sine Wave

2.3.2 Waveform

Fig 2.6 Waveform of Pure Sine Wave

2.3.3 Disadvantages
Line is relatively complex; high technically demanding for maintenance, more expensive.
2.4 PWM Technique
PWM or Pulse width Modulation is used to keep the output voltage of the inverter at the
rated voltage (110V AC / 220V AC) (depending on the country) irrespective of the output load. In
a conventional inverter the output voltage changes according to the changes in the load. To nullify
effect caused by the changing loads, the PWM inverter correct the output voltage according to the
value of the load connected at the output. This is accomplished by changing the width of the
switching frequency generated by the oscillator section. The AC voltage at the output depend on
the width of the switching pulse. The process is achieved by feed backing a part of the inverter
output to the PWM controller section (PWM controller IC).Based on this feedback voltage the
PWM controller will make necessary corrections in the pulse width of the switching pulse
generated at oscillator section. This change in the pulse width of the switching pulse will cancel
the changes in the output voltage and the inverter output will stay constant irrespective of the load
variations.
2.4.1 Block diagram of an PWM Inverter

Fig 2.7 Block Diagram of an PWM Inverter

2.4.2 Types of PWM Technique
PWM techniques are characterized by constant amplitude pulses. The width of these
pulses is however modulated to obtain output voltage control and to reduce its harmonic content.
The different PWM techniques are Single-pulse modulation, Multiple pulse modulation and
Sinusoidal pulse width modulation (Carrier based Pulse Width Modulation Technique). These
techniques are explained below in brief :
Single pulse width modulation
In single pulse-width modulation control, there is only one pulse per half-cycle and the
width of the pulse is varying to control the output voltage. Fig 2.8 shows the generation of gating
signals of single pulse width modulation. The single pulse-width modulation converts the
reference signal to the square wave signal. This process is obtained by inter the reference signal
to the zero-crossing circuit witch consider the positive part of the input signal is positive part of
the output signal(square wave) and the negative part of the input signal is negative part of the
output signal as shown in Fig 2.8.

Fig 2.8 The generation of gating signals of single pulse width modulation

Multi-Pulse width modulation

The harmonic content can be reduced by using several pulses in each half-cycle of output
voltage. The generation of gating signals for turning on and off transistors is shown in Fig 2.9.
The gating signals are produced by comparing reference signal with triangular carrier wave. The
frequency of the reference signal sets the output frequency (𝑓𝑜) and carrier frequency ( )
determine the number of pulses per half cycle,

The variation of modulation index (M) from 0 to 1 varies the pulse from 0 to ᴨ/p and the output
voltage from 0 to Vm.

Fig 2.9 The generation of gating signals of multi-pulse width modulation

Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Technique

As mentioned earlier, it is desired that the ac output voltage Vo=VaN follow a given
waveform (e.g., sinusoidal) on a continuous basis by properly switching the power valves. The
carrier-based PWM technique fulfils such a requirement as it defines the on and off states of the
switches of one leg of a VSI by comparing a modulating signal Vc (desired ac output voltage)
and a triangular waveform V∆ (carrier signal). In practice, when Vc > V∆ the switch S+ is on
and the switch S- is off; similarly, when Vc < V∆ the switch S+ is off and the switch S- is on.
 Fig 2.10 The generation of gating signals of Carrier-Based pulse width modulation

2.5 Voltage Source Inverter

Figure 2.11 shows the traditional single-phase voltage-source converter (abbreviated as
V-source converter) structure. A dc voltage source supported by a relatively large capacitor feeds
the main converter circuit, a single-phase bridge. The dc voltage source can be a battery, fuel-cell
stack, diode rectifier, and/or capacitor. Four switches are used in the main circuit; each is
traditionally composed of a power transistor and an antiparallel (or freewheeling) diode to
provide bidirectional current flow and unidirectional voltage blocking capability.

Figure 2.11: Traditional Voltage Source Inverter

It, however, has the following conceptual and theoretical barriers and limitations.
 The ac output voltage is limited below and cannot exceed the dc-rail voltage or the dc-rail
voltage has to be greater than the ac input voltage. Therefore, the voltage source inverter
is a buck (step-down) inverter for dc-to-ac power conversion and the voltage source
 converter is a boost (step-up) rectifier (or boost converter) for ac-to-dc power conversion.
For applications where over drive is desirable and the available dc voltage is limited, an
additional dc-dc boost converter is needed to obtain a desired ac output. The additional
power converter stage increases system cost and lowers efficiency.
 The upper and lower devices of each phase leg cannot be gated on simultaneously either
by purpose or by EMI noise. Otherwise, a shoot-through would occur and destroy the
devices. The shoot-through problem by electromagnetic interference (EMI) noise’s
misgating-on is a major killer to the converter’s reliability. Dead time to block both upper
and lower devices has to be provided in the voltage source converter, which causes
waveform distortion, etc.
 An output LC filter is needed for providing a sinusoidal voltage compared with the current-
source inverter, which causes additional power loss and control complexity.

2.6 Current Source Inverter

Figure 2.12 shows the traditional single-phase current-source converter (abbreviated
as I-source converter) structure. A dc current source feeds the main converter circuit, a single-
phase bridge. The dc current source can be a relatively large dc inductor fed by a voltage source
such as a battery, fuel-cell stack, diode rectifier, or thyristors converter. Four switches are used in
the main circuit; each is traditionally composed of a semiconductor switching device with
reverse block capability such as a gate-turn-off thyristors (GTO) and Silicon Controlled Rectifier
(SCR) or a power transistor with a series diode to provide unidirectional current flow and
bidirectional voltage blocking.

Figure 2.12: Traditional Current Source Inverter

 However, the Current source converter has the following conceptual and theoretical barriers
and limitations.
 The ac output voltage has to be greater than the original dc voltage that feeds the dc
inductor or the dc voltage produced is always smaller than the ac input voltage. Therefore,
the current source inverter is a boost inverter for dc-to-ac power conversion and the current
source converter is a buck rectifier (or buck converter) for ac-to-dc power conversion. For
applications where a wide voltage range is desirable, an additional dc–dc buck (or boost)
converter is needed. The additional power conversion stage increases system cost and
lowers efficiency.
 At least one of the upper devices and one of the lower devices have to be gated on and
maintained on at any time. Otherwise, an open circuit of the dc inductor would occur and
destroy the devices. The open-circuit problem by EMI noise’s misgating-off is a major
concern of the converter’s reliability. Overlap time for safe current commutation is needed
in the current source converter, which also causes waveform distortion, etc.
 The main switches of the current source converter have to block reverse voltage that
requires a series diode to be used in combination with high-speed and high performance
transistors such as insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). This prevents the direct use
of low-cost and high-performance IGBT modules and intelligent power modules (IPMs).
In addition, both the voltage source converter and the current source converter have the
following common problems.
 They are either a boost or a buck converter and cannot be a buck–boost converter. That is,
their obtainable output voltage range is limited to either greater or smaller than the input
voltage.
 The VSI is a buck (down) inverter where AC output voltage cannot exceed DC input
voltage. CSI is a boost (up) inverter where AC output voltage is always greater than the
DC voltage feeding the inductor. For applications exceeding available voltage range an
additional boost (or buck) DC/DC converter is needed.

This increases the system cost and decreases the efficiency.

 Their main circuits cannot be interchangeable. In other words, neither the voltage source
converter main circuit can be used for the current source converter, or vice versa.
  They are vulnerable to EMI noise in terms of reliability.
 For a VSI, the upper and lower switches cannot be on simultaneously which may cause a
short circuit. On the other hand, for a CSI one of the upper switches and one of the lower
switches have to be on to provide a path for the continuous input current. The VSI (CSI)
requires dead time (overlap time) to provide safe commutation which causes waveform
distortion.
 In a CSI, switch implementation requires diodes in series with the switches. This prevents
the use of low cost switches which come with anti-parallel diodes implementation, as is
usually manufactured.
2.7 Three Phase Inverter
A three-phase inverter converts a DC input into a three-phase AC output. Its three arms
are normally delayed by an angle of 120° so as to generate a three-phase AC supply. The inverter
switches each has a ratio of 50% and switching occurs after every T/6 of the time T (60° angle
interval). The switches S1 and S4, the switches S2 and S5 and switches S3 and S6 complement
each other.

The figure below shows a circuit for a three phase inverter. It is nothing but three single
phase inverters put across the same DC source. The pole voltages in a three phase inverter are
equal to the pole voltages in single phase half bridge inverter.

The two types of inverters above have two modes of conduction − 180° mode of
conduction and 120° mode of conduction.
180° mode of conduction
In this mode of conduction, every device is in conduction state for 180° where they are
switched ON at 60° intervals. The terminals A, B and C are the output terminals of the bridge that
are connected to the three-phase delta or star connection of the load.

The operation of a balanced star connected load is explained in the diagram below. For the period
0° − 60° the points S1, S5 and S6 are in conduction mode. The terminals A and C of the load are
connected to the source at its positive point. The terminal B is connected to the source at its
negative point. In addition, resistances R/2 is between the neutral and the positive end while
resistance R is between the neutral and the negative terminal.

The load voltages are gives as follows; The line voltages are given as follows;

VAN = V/3, VAB = VAN − VBN = V,

VBN = −2V/3, VBC = VBN − VCN = −V,

VCN = V/3 VCA = VCN − VAN = 0

Waveforms for 180° mode of conduction

Fig 2.13 Waveform of 180 degree mode

120° mode of conduction
In this mode of conduction, each electronic device is in a conduction state for 120°. It is
most suitable for a delta connection in a load because it results in a six-step type of waveform
across any of its phases. Therefore, at any instant only two devices are conducting because each
device conducts at only 120°.
The terminal A on the load is connected to the positive end while the terminal B is
connected to the negative end of the source. The terminal C on the load is in a condition called
floating state. Furthermore, the phase voltages are equal to the load voltages as shown below.
Phase voltages = Line voltages

VAB = V

VBC = −V/2

VCA = −V/2
Waveforms for 120° mode of conduction

Fig2.14 : Voltage and current waveforms

2.8 History of Z-Source Inverter
A Z-source inverter is a type of power inverter, a circuit that converts direct current to
alternating current. It functions as a buck-boost inverter without making use of DC-DC Converter
Bridge due to its unique circuit topology.
Impedance (Z-) Source networks provide an efficient means of power conversion between
source and load in a wide range of electric power conversion applications (dc–dc, dc–ac, ac–dc,
ac– ac). Z-source-related research has grown rapidly since it was first proposed in 2002 by Prof.
F. Z. Peng. A comprehensive pulse width modulation scheme for Z-source inverters was proposed
by Prof. P. C. Loh and Prof. D. M. Vilathgamuwa. The numbers of modifications and new Z-
source topologies have grown exponentially. Improvements to the impedance networks by
introducing coupled magnetics have also been lately proposed for achieving even higher voltage
boosting, while using a shorter shoot-through time. They include the Γ-source, T-source, trans-Z-
source, TZ-source, LCCT-Z-source (proposed in 2011 by Dr Marek Adamowicz and utilizing high
frequency transformer connected in series with two dc-current-blocking capacitors), high-
frequency transformer-isolated, and Y-source networks. Among them, the Y-source network
(proposed in year 2013 by Dr Yam P. Siwakoti) is more versatile and can in fact be viewed as the
generic network, from which the Γ-source, T-source, and trans-Z-source networks are derived. The
incommensurate properties of this network open a new horizon to researchers and engineers to
explore, expand, and modify the circuit for a wide range of power conversion applications.
2.9 Literature Survey
The terms voltage-fed and current-fed are used in connection with output from inverter
circuit. Variable voltage and frequency supply to ac drives is invariably obtained from a three
phase voltage source inverter. A number of Pulse width modulation (PWM) schemes are used to
obtain variable voltage and frequency supply. The most widely used PWM schemes for three phase
voltage source inverters are carrier-based sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) and space vector PWM
(SVPWM). Inverter output waveforms (either voltage or current) are usually rectilinear in nature
and as such contain harmonics which may lead to reduced load efficiency and performance. Load
harmonic reduction can be achieved by either filtering, selected harmonic reduction chopping or
pulse-width modulation. Voltage source inverters and current source inverters are used widely but
they have certain theoretical and conceptual barriers and limitations like problem of shoot-through,
do not have buck-boost feature etc.
 The three control methods of ZSI namely simple boost control, maximum boost control
and constant maximum boost control have been discussed. Comparison of voltage gain of control
methods for ZSI under a given boost factor has been done. ZSI has utilized shoot through switching
states in addition to active states and zero states. It has provided special feature of buck–boost
which was not possible in traditional VSI and CSI.
It has been found that a ZSI at a given boost factor, the maximum boost control method
has the greatest modulation index and thus maximum boost control technique has the highest
voltage gain. It has been found that there are two maximum constant boost control methods for the
ZSI which have achieved maximum voltage gain at any given modulation index without generating
any low-frequency ripple that is connected to the output frequency. So, the Z network requirement
would be independent of the output frequency and ascertained only by the switching frequency. It
has been discussed that the analysis of ZSI which was available in literature was based on
assumption that inductor current is rather large, continuous and has small ripple. These
assumptions have become irrational for low load power factor and for small inductances. A simple
method to eliminate the new operating modes by superseding the diodes with a switch has also
been proposed. This configuration has also provided bidirectional power flow ability.
It has been presented that by using conventional SPWM in case of inductive load the output
voltage and current of ZSI suffered from distortion and hence power inverting quality also gets
affected. According to the principle of ZSI the control method has been applied to dc ac by
inserting a fixed D into zero state of SPWM. Upgraded SPWM has not only reduced the distortion
but also decreases the switch times and quantities in each cycle. Thus Total Harmonic Distortion
(THD) has been reduced expertly and hence efficiency has been upgraded.
ZSI has been used widely in many applications due to its buck-boost nature and single
stage power conversion. For a split-phase grid-connected photo voltaic system, a ZSI system has
been nominated. The nominated system has realized the boost and inversion with power tracking
in one single power stage thus minimized the number of switching devices. All the merits of ZSI
have been combined with six switch split-phase inverter to develop a reliable PCS system.
Another application has been shown by developing a new ASD system based on ZSI. By
regulating the open-circuit duty cycle, the ZSI could generate any desired output ac voltage, even
less than the line voltage. ZSI has given superior low speed characteristics than conventional CSI
fed adjustable speed drives.
 Several controllers have been implemented on ZSI to enhance the system performance. A
direct peak dc-link boost voltage like-PID fuzzy controller in ZSI has been presented. With the
help of this technique a constant peak dc-link voltage could be retrieved with good transient
performance which increases the rejection of disturbance, including the input voltage and load
current variation, and has also facilitated the design of controller. It has also given a phase plan to
show the control effort transient response, examine the system stability and modify the rule
matrices.