Communication Systems

•Definition of Communication System •Computer Networks

•Parts of a Communication System •OSI Model
•Source •Network Devices

•Transmitter •Topologies
•Analog and Digital •System Classification
•Channel •Encoding
•Wired and Wireless
•Allocation
•Receiver
 Introduction

Communication is the process of exchanging information, and the

technology of transmitting information. (From Wikipedia)

A Communication System facilitates the movement of

information from one place to another.

There are five basic parts associated with a typical communication

systems

Source Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination

Part 1. The Source

The source generates the signal that we wish to

communicate. Signal sources can be analog or
digital

Examples
•Audio Signals
•Video Signals
•Computer Data
Part 2. The Transmitter
The transmitter bridges the source and transmission
media, source signals must be converted into a form that
can be transmitted over some specific physical medium

Designer must know,

•Information analog or digital
•Transmission channel wireless or cable
•Type of signal modulation needed

Transmitter details (designs) are based on,

•Information type
•Channel type
•Modulation type
Modulation: Modulation is a operation that uses the source
information to modify a signal so that it is more suited for
transmission over a given channel.

Modulation basically works like this: The message that we want to

transmit (the modulating signal) interacts with, or “modulates” a
higher frequency signal (the carrier wave) by inducing a change in
some particular aspect of the carrier wave, for example its
amplitude, frequency, or phase.

The resulting waveform is a high frequency signal that has the

lower frequency message signal embedded in it.
 Purpose of Modulation:

1. To achieve most effective use of the available channel

On any given channel that is shared by several entities, there is a need for
each of these entities to use the channel without causing problems for the
others. Without modulation, only one radio station could broadcast information
at a time.

2. Reduction of antenna length for wireless systems

Antenna length is proportional to transmission wavelength, which is inversely

proportional to frequency, so if we modulate our signal at higher frequencies,
meaning shorter wavelengths, results in shorter antenna lengths
 Equations: Quarter wavelength antenna

λ=
c λ
h=
f 4

Calculate the antenna lengths required for the following signal frequencies

10,000 Hz 1 GHz

3x10 8 3x10 8
λ= = 30,000 meters λ= = 0.3 meters
10,000 1x10 9

30,000 0.3
h= = 7,500 meters ≈ 4.66 Miles h= = 0.075 meters = 7.5 cm or 2.95 Inches
4 4
 Modulation Types: there are many types, or techniques, of modulation,
and simple modulation can be divided into two groups, analog and digital.

Analog Modulation

AM Amplitude Modulation uses the message signal to change the

amplitude of the carrier signal
Message Signal
1 .8

1 .6

1 .4

1 .2

0 .8

0 .6

0 .4

0 .2

0
0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5 3
Modulated Signal
m(t)
m(t) 2

1 .5

0 .5

X 0

-0 . 5

-1

-1 . 5

Carrier Signal -2
0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5 3

1
m(t)cos( ω0t)
0 .8

0 .6

0 .4

0 .2

-0 . 2

-0 . 4

-0 . 6

-0 . 8

-1

cos(ω0t)
0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5 3

cos(ω
FM Frequency Modulation uses the message signal to change the
frequency of the carrier signal

Message Signal

Frequency
Modulator

Modulated Signal

Carrier Signal
PM Phase Modulation uses the message signal to change the
phase of the carrier signal

Message Signal

Phase
Modulator
Modulated Signal

Carrier Signal
 Digital Modulation

ASK Amplitude Shift Keying sets the amplitudes for highs and
lows at different levels for different signals

0 1 0 1 1 0
FSK Frequency Shift Keying

0 1 0 1 1 0

PSK Phase Shift Keying

0 1 0 1 1 0

Note cycles/sec for each case!

 Classification of Communication Systems by Modulation
Scheme

Communication Systems

Analog Digital

AM FM PM ASK FSK PSK

A communication system is classified as analog or digital based solely on

the modulation technique. Alternative view……source information type
Part 3. The Channel

The channel is the medium, connecting the transmitter

and receiver, over which the transmitted signal
travels.

Two channel types,

•Wired Channel (physical connection exist)

•Copper wire
•Fiber

•Wireless Channel (physical connection not required)

•Free space
•Water
Once a communication system has been classified
by modulation type, it can be further classified by
channel type

Communication Systems

Analog Digital

Wired Hybrid Wireless Wired Hybrid Wireless

Channel Allocation

•Channels are usually divided into segments to facilitate use by a

variety of entities and in a variety of different ways.

•Two methods of division are accomplished through bandwidth

restrictions

•Analog Bandwidth is defined as the band or, range of frequencies, on a

channel over which data can be transmitted

•Digital Bandwidth is defined as the amount of data that can be

transmitted over the channel during a given period of time

•The act of sending multiple data streams over the same channel is a
concept known as multiplexing
Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is achieved by dividing up the
available frequencies and allowing different data streams to use a subset of
the overall frequency space.
Multiplexing De-
De-Multiplexing
Hardware Hardware

Transmission Channel
(Each signal is on its own frequency)

Input Signals Output Signals

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is achieved by allowing each data stream a

fixed amount of time to transmit on the channel.
Multiplexing De-
De-Multiplexing
Hardware Hardware

Transmission Channel
(Each signal is in its own time slot)

Input Signals Output Signals

 Channel Switching

Circuit Switching: often found in telephone systems

•Dedicated channel is setup between the transmitter and receiver only when
needed

•Channel remove after communication has ended and made available for
others

Packet Switching: often found in computer networks.

•Data is divided up into a series of small units called packets

•Packets are released out onto the channel

•As they arrive at each node, they are routed down different paths based on
network congestion and a number of other factors
Part 4. The Receiver
The task of the receiver is to convert the delivered message into a
useful form for the end user

The receiver performs two basic tasks,

•Isolates the signal that it is designed to receive

•Demodulates the signal
•Converts the information to the appropriate output format

Source Transmitter Channel Receiver Destination

 Modulation Example

Amplitude Modulation

Message signal: m1 (t ) = Am sin(ωmt )

Carrier signal: c(t ) = Ac sin(ωc t )

What terms represent the signal frequencies?

What terms represent the amplitudes?

 Creating the AM signal

Step 1: Add a constant C to the message signal, this constant is typically

chosen to match the peak amplitude of the message signal

m2 (t ) = C + Am sin(ωmt )

Step 2: Multiply the new message signal by the carrier signal. That’s it.

AM (t ) = [C + Am sin(ωmt )] Ac sin(ωc t )
 AM (t ) = [C + Am sin(ωmt )] Ac sin(ωc t )

Starting with the AM equation and using the trig formula;

1 1
sin(θ )sin(φ ) = cos(θ − φ ) − cos(θ + φ )
2 2

We can recast the equation as;

Am Ac
AM (t ) = CAc sin(ωct ) + [cos((ωc − ωm )t ) − cos((ωc + ωm )t )]
2

How many frequency terms? carrier, upper, and lower sidebands

Let: C =2, Ac = 2, Am = 2, f c = 10Hz , and f m = 1Hz.

We can rewrite as;

AM (t ) = 4sin(2π t ) + 2[cos(18π t ) − cos(22π t )]

Or casting in the original form:

AM (t ) = [4 + 4sin(2π t )]sin(20π t )

AM Example
 Computer Networks
Definition: A network can be defined as two or more devices
sharing a common connection for the purpose of communicating
information and/or device sharing.

The connection may or may not require a physical connection

Simple point to point: From the definition the simplest possible

configuration would include two devices as shown.
 OSI (Open System Interconnection) Reference Model

A set of Industry standards describing data communications between two

networked endpoints. The Seven layers.

Provides guide lines for vendors and developers to follow to ensure

Interoperability and compatibility
 The Functions (seven layers)
Physical layer: governs receiving and transmitting data, converts bits into
electrical signals and vise versa. (cabling, fiber optics, repeaters…..)

Data-Link layer: establishes address of devices (MAC, media access control

address), maintains communication links, governs flow control and error
checking. (NIC, network interface card)

Network layer: facilitates transmissions between non-locale devices,

encapsulates data packets for transmission.

Transport layer: facilitates transmissions between hosts, monitors data integrity

and data transmission successes/failures

Session layer: responsible for establishing and terminating connections,

security; host and logon authentication.

Presentation layer: performs coding/decoding, encryption/decryption, and

compression/decompression of data.

Application layer: determines source/destination and resources required for

communications. Handles HTTP, FTP and other high level protocols.
 Internet 5 Layer Model

Application Telnet/FTP

Transport TCP/UDP

Internet IP

Network MAC (Media Access Control)

Physical Ethernet
 Devices

Network Interface Card: provides the link, interface, for the computer to
send or receive information on the network, it handles the details of
transmission and receiving in compliance with the channel specifications

MODEM: (modulator-demodulator), is a device that is used to modulate and

demodulate digital signals for transmission over a specific channel. The
type of modulation is channel dependant.

Hub: is a device that implements a network, shared common connection

between computers

Switch: is basically a smart hub, that uses information from the signals it
receives to direct the communications to the appropriate computer on its
network.

Router: a router is a computer that connects two or more networks and

governs the flow of information between them
 Transmission Medium (channels)
Copper wires: low resistance, cheap, electrical signals: coaxial
cable, unshielded and shielded twisted pair.

Glass Fiber: electrical interference free, extended signal

propagation, high bandwidth, light signals: fiber optic cable

Free Space: no physical connection, line of sight, terrestrial based

transmissions, satellite transmissions
Referenced: http://www.pulsewan.com

Ethernet IEEE 802.3 Values

Value
10Base5 10Base2 10BaseT 10BaseFL 100BaseT

Data rate 10 10 10 10 10 100

(Mbps)
Maximum 500 500 185 100 2,000 100
segment
length (m)
Media 50-ohm 50-ohm 50-ohm Unshielded Fiber-optic Unshielded
coax coax coax twisted-pair twisted-pair
(thick) (thick) (thin) cable cable
 MODEM (Communication System 1)

Case 1 - over (analog) telephone line

•Baseband Carrier
•FSK, PSK, QAM
•Digital or Analog?
•Wired System

Case 2 - over cable TV line long-distance

cable modem coaxial cable modem
•Upstream/Downstream Freq. cable

•PSK, QAM computer computer

site 1 site 2
•Digital or Analog?
•Wired System CAT5 cable
LAN (local area network): small scale network may be confined to
a single room or building…..

WAN (wide area network): large scale network, can connect multiple
networks together to form a single network, span a building or the globe…..
 LAN Topologies

Bus: single cable connecting multiple

computers, signals sent go to all
computers. ` ` ` `

Ring: single cable connecting multiple ` `

computers in a loop configuration, signals

sent to all computers.

` `

Star: multiple cables attach computers

to a central point, signals may or may not
be sent to all computers
 LAN (Communication system 2)

100BaseT Ethernet
•Baseband Signal
•PAM
•Digital Wired System
•Packet switching
 Wireless Networks

Wireless transmissions
•Electromagnetic waves, informally radio frequency transmissions
•Star or point-to-point topology

Small local network

•Wireless router (Home)
•Wireless router and repeaters (Hotel/Office)

Large network
•Microwave (line of site transmissions)
•Satellite/ground Station (home or Business access)
 Wireless Network (Communication System 3)

•802.11g
`
•Max 54 Mbits/s

•Orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing (OFDM) modulation

•Hybrid system
 Ethernet Passive Optical Networks

1. Offer data rates up to 1.25 Gbps

• 10, 100, and 1000 Mbps
2. Integrates well with existing technology
• IP/Ethernet infrastructure
3. Uses single optical fiber runs
• Reduced cost/ maintenance
4. Require no active elements in the communication channel
• Passive splitters/combiners
5. Technology shows promise for bandwidth growth
• Optical transceiver technology
EPON integrates Ethernet standards Into a PON
EFM Standard IEEE 802.3ah
 Optical signals
Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM) Full Duplex
• Transmitters DFB Lasers
• Receivers PIN Photodiodes

The OLT transceiver transmits

• Voice and data at 1490 nm
• Video at 1550 nm
• Receives at 1310 nm.

The ONT transceiver transmits

• All traffic at 1310 nm
• Receives at 1490 and 1550
 Bandwidth and Data rates
Depend on:
1. Available Bandwidth
2. Signal levels (number of) used
3. The channel Signal to Noise ratio (channel quality)

Goals:
1. Maximize channel Bandwidth
2. Maximize Signal levels.
3. Maximize Signal power while reducing channel Noise.
 Shannon Capacity
Gives the theoretical maximum data rate (upper limit)
for a “Real Channel”

Capacity = B log 2 (1 + SNR)

B = Bandwidth in Hz

Average Signal Power

SNR =
Average Noise Power

Units are bits per second (bps)

Note:
Zero noise >> SNR = infinity >> Ideal channel
 Nyquist Bit Rate
Gives the theoretical maximum data rate for a “Ideal Channel”

Bitrate = 2 B log 2 ( S )

B = Bandwidth in Hz

S = number of signal levels

1 1 11 11
10 10

(s) (s)
1 1
01 01
0 0 00 00

S = 2, bit rate = 4 bps S = 4, bit rate = 8 bps

Given a channel with a bandwidth equal to 10 MHz and a average
SNR equal to 10 answer the following.

a. What is the maximum channel capacity?

Capacity = B log 2 (1 + SNR )

= 10 × 106 log 2 (11)

ln( x)
Recall log 2 ( x) =
ln 2

ln(11)
Capacity = 10 ×106
ln 2

≅ 34 Mbps
b. What is the number of levels needed to fully utilize the channel?

Bitrate = 2 B log 2 ( S )

34 = 20 ×106 log 2 ( S )

34 ln( S )
= log ( S ) =
20 ×106
2
ln 2

1.18 = ln( S )

e1.18 = S = 3.24

Must be a power of 2 and whole number to be useful, S = 4

c. What value of the SNR would we need to achieve the full bitrate of
a 4 level system with the given bandwidth?

Bitrate = 20 ×106 log 2 (4) = 40 Mbps

Capacity = B log 2 (1 + SNR )

40 ×106 ≅ 10 ×106 log 2 ( SNR)

40 ln(2) = ln( SNR )

27.7 = ln( SNR)

SNR = e 27.7 = 1× 1012

 Common Digital Information Encoding

Numeric Coding Schemes

Straight Binary Coding: represents a number as a series of zeros and

ones in base 2

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD): EXAMPLE 12.1

Binary Value Decimal Digit Binary Value Decimal Digit

0000 0 1000 8
0001 1 1001 9
0010 2 1010 Not Used
0011 3 1011 Not Used
0100 4 1100 Not Used
0101 5 1101 Not Used
0110 6 1110 Not Used
0111 7 1111 Not Used
 Alphanumeric Encoding Schemes

The ASCII Code: ASCII (American Standard Code for Information

Interchange) code uses seven binary bits to represent 128
different possible characters including upper and lower case
letters, numbers, punctuation, symbols, and some special control
characters.

Computers make extensive use of the ASCII system

•Keyboard
•COM ports
•Parallel ports
Decimal Binary Symbol Decimal Binary Symbol Decimal Binary Symbol
000 0000000 (Null) 043 0101011 + 086 1010110 V
001 0000001 SOH 044 0101100 , 087 1010111 W
002 0000010 STX 045 0101101 - 088 1011000 X
003 0000011 ETX 046 0101110 . 089 1011001 Y
004 0000100 EOT 047 0101111 / 090 1011010 Z
005 0000101 ENQ 048 0110000 0 091 1011011 [
006 0000110 ACK 049 0110001 1 092 1011100 \
007 0000111 BEL 050 0110010 2 093 1011101 ]
008 0001000 BS 051 0110011 3 094 1011110 ^
009 0001001 HT 052 0110100 4 095 1011111 _
010 0001010 LF 053 0110101 5 096 1100000 `
011 0001011 VT 054 0110110 6 097 1100001 a
012 0001100 FF 055 0110111 7 098 1100010 b
013 0001101 CR 056 0111000 8 099 1100011 c
014 0001110 SO 057 0111001 9 100 1100100 d
015 0001111 SI 058 0111010 : 101 1100101 e
016 0010000 DLE 059 0111011 ; 102 1100110 f
017 0010001 DC1 060 0111100 < 103 1100111 g
018 0010010 DC2 061 0111101 = 104 1101000 h
019 0010011 DC3 062 0111110 > 105 1101001 i
020 0010100 DC4 063 0111111 ? 106 1101010 j
021 0010101 NAK 064 1000000 @ 107 1101011 k
022 0010110 SYN 065 1000001 A 108 1101100 l
023 0010111 ETB 066 1000010 B 109 1101101 m
024 0011000 CAN 067 1000011 C 110 1101110 n
025 0011001 EM 068 1000100 D 111 1101111 o
026 0011010 SUB 069 1000101 E 112 1110000 p
027 0011011 ESC 070 1000110 F 113 1110001 q
028 0011100 FS 071 1000111 G 114 1110010 r
029 0011101 GS 072 1001000 H 115 1110011 s
030 0011110 RS 073 1001001 I 116 1110100 t
031 0011111 US 074 1001010 J 117 1110101 u
032 0100000 (Space) 075 1001011 K 118 1110110 v
033 0100001 ! 076 1001100 L 119 1110111 w
034 0100010 " 077 1001101 M 120 1111000 x
035 0100011 # 078 1001110 N 121 1111001 y
036 0100100 $ 079 1001111 O 122 1111010 z
037 0100101 % 080 1010000 P 123 1111011 {
038 0100110 & 081 1010001 Q 124 1111100 |
039 0100111 ' 082 1010010 R 125 1111101 }
040 0101000 ( 083 1010011 S 126 1111110 ~
041 0101001 ) 084 1010100 T 127 1111111 DEL
042 0101010 * 085 1010101 U

EXAMPLE 12.2