MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES

1. ST R E SS
2. ST R AI N
3. MAT E R I AL PR OPE R T I E S
4. AXI AL L OADI NG
5. T OR SI ON
6. ST R E SSE S I N B E AMS (bE ND IN G , TRAN SVERSE SHEAR)
7. COMB I NE D L OADI NGS
8. ST R E SS AND ST R AI N T R ANSFORM ATION
9. DE FL E CT I ON OF B E AMS
10. I NDE T E R MI NAT E B E AMS
11. B U CKL I NG OF COL U MN
CHAPTER 1: STRESS
1. INTRO DUCTIO N
2. C O NCE P T O F STRE SS
3. SIMP LE STRUCTURAL DE SIGN
4. NO RMAL STRE SS
5. SHE ARING STRE SS
6. BE ARING STRE SS
7. T HIN-WALLE D P RE SSURE VE SSE LS
8. SP HE RICAL SHE LL
9. STRE SSE S O N AN INCLINE D P LANE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 CONCEPT OF STRESS
1.3 SIMPLE STRUCTURAL DESIGN
 1.5 SHEAR STRESS

sh ear Stress - Forces parallel to

th e area resisting th e force cause
sh earing stress.e.

tau = sh ear stress

v= sh ear force
a = resisting area

1.4 NORMAL STRESS

Normal Stress - Th e resisting area is

perpendicular to th e applied force.

sigma = normal stress

p = normal force
a= resisting area
1.6 BEARING STRESS 1.7 THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS
A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is subjected to
tensile forces, which resist bursting, developed across longitudinal and
B ear i n g st r es s i s th e c o nta ct
transverse sections.
pressure between th e separate TANGENTIAL STRESS
(CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS)
bodies.
SIGMAT =TANGENTIAL STRESS
RHO = INTERNAL PRESSURE
SIGMAb = normal stress d= INSIDE DIAMETER
T = THICKNESS
p b = normal force
SIGMAT =TANGENTIAL STRESS
ab= resisting area
RHO O = EXTERNAL PRESSURE
rHO I = INTERNAL PRESSURE
d= INSIDE DIAMETER
T = THICKNESS

LONGITUDINAL STRESS

SIGMAT =TANGENTIAL STRESS

RHO O = EXTERNAL PRESSURE
rHO I = INTERNAL PRESSURE
d= INSIDE DIAMETER
T = THICKNESS

1.8 SPHERICAL SHELL

If a spherical tank of diameter D and thickness t

contains gas under a pressure of p = P I - P O,

the stress at the wall can be expressed as:

th e average bearing stress is th e force pushing against

a structure divided by th e area. exact bearing stress is
more complicated but for most applications, th e equations
h ere works well for th e average.
1.9 STRESSES ON INCLINED PLANES
CHAPTER 2: STRAIN
1. N ORM A L S T RA I N
2. S H E A R S T RA I N
2.1 NORMAL STRAIN 2.2 SHEAR STRAIN

Shearing forces cause shearing

deformation. An element subject
to shear does not change in length
strain is the ratio of the change in but undergoes a change in shape.
length caused by the applied force,
GAMMA = SHEAR STRAIN
to the original length.
DELTA S = OPPOSITE
L = ADJACENT

EPSILON = STRAIN DAHIL SOBRANG LIIT LANG NG VALUE NG

DELTA = CHANGE IN LENGTH DELTA S, KAHIT DI MO NA LAGYAN NG
L = ORIGINAL LENGTH TANGENT (TAN DELTA S OVER L).
CHAPTER 3: MATERIAL PROPERTIES
1. S T RES S- ST RAI N D I AGRAM
2. PO I SS O N’ S RAT I O
3. S HEAR ST RESS - S T RAI N D I AGRAM
3.1 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

region o to a
The diagram begins with a straight line from the origin O to point A, which means that the relationship
between stress and strain in this initial region is not only linear but also proportional (HOOKE’s LAW). Beyond
point A, the proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists; hence the stress at A is called the
proportional limit.

region a to b
With an increase in stress beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more rapidly for each
increment in stress. Consequently, the stress-strain curve has a smaller and smaller slope, until, at point
B, the curve becomes horizontal. Beginning at this point, considerable elongation of the test specimen occurs
with no noticeable increase in the tensile force (from B to C). This phenomenon is known as yielding of the
material, and point B is called the yield point. The corresponding stress is known as the yield stress of the
steel.

region b to c
In the region from B to C. the material becomes perfectly plastic, which means that it deforms without an
increase in the applied load.
region c to d
After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the steel begins to strain
harden. During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its crystalline structure, resulting in
increased resistance of the material to further deformation. Elongation of the test specimen in this region
requires an increase in the tensile load, and therefore the stress-strain diagram has a positive slope from sometimes the yield stress is not very clear
C to D. The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at point D) is called in the diagram, it this type of diagram we
can use the o.2% offset method to determine
the ultimate stress. the yield stress. kuhanin natin yung 0.2%
sa strain axis. then draw tayo straight line
region d to e parallel sa HOOKE’S LAW LINE. YUNG POINT NG
INTERSECTION NG DIAGRAM AT NG DRAWN LINE
Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load, and fracture finally occurs AY YUNG YIELD STRESS.

at a point such as E.

STRAIN ENERGY
DURING DEFORMATION, THE MATERIAL WILL ABSORB ENERGY, AND THE MATERIAL WILL STORE THE ENERGY
INTERNALLY IN ITS VOLUME. THIS ENERGY IS CALLED STRAIN ENERGY.

STRAIN ENERGY DENSITY (LOWERCASE U) - STRAIN ENERGY PER UNIT VOLUME

- HOW MUCH ENERGY CAN A

MATERIAL ABSORB WITHOUT
PERMANENT DEFORMATION.

- THE AMOUNT OF TOTAL ENERGY

THE MATERIAL CAN ABSORB BEFORE
FAILING. MATHEMATICALLY, IT IS THE
AREA UNDER THE ENTIRE CURVE.
INTEGRAL OF THE DIAGRAM CURVE.
3.2 POISSON’S RATIO 3.3 SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

TENSILE

“PWASAN”

COMPRESSIVE

1. ALWAYS POSITIVE
2. DIMENSIONLESS
3. VALUE FROM 0 TO 0.5
CHAPTER 4: AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS
1. SAINT- V E NANT’S PRINCIPL E
2. AXIAL DE F O RMATIO N
3. STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
AXIAL L Y L O ADE D ME MB E R
4. THE RMAL STRE SS
4.2 AXIAL DEFORMATION
4.3 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER
4.4 THERMAL STRESS
CHAPTER 5: TORSION
1. TORSIONA L DEFORMATION
OF CIRCULAR SHA FT
2. POWER TRANSMISSION
3. ANGLE OF TWIST
4. STATICA LLY INDETERMINATE
5. TORQUE LOA DED MEMBER
CHAPTER 6: STRESSES IN BEAMS
1. BE NDI NG STR E SS
2. T R ANSVE R SE SH E AR
3. D E SI G N OF B E AM
4. RE I NFOR C E D B E AM S
CHAPTER 7: COMBINED LOADINGS
1. S tresses caused by combined
loadings
CHAPTER 8:
STRESS AND STRAIN TRANSFORMATION
1. STRESS TRANSFORMATION
GENERAL EQUATIONS
2. PRINCIPAL STRESSES
3. MAXIMUM IN-PLANE SHEAR STRESS
4. MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRE SS
5. PLAIN STRAIN TRANSFORMATION
CHAPTER 9: DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
1. D OUB L E IN T E GR A T ION M E T H O D
2. A RE A -M O M E N T M E T H OD
3. C O N JU G A T E B E A M M E T H OD
4. C A ST IGL IA N O ’S T H E OR E M
5. M ET H OD OF SU PE R PO SIT ION
6. three-moment equation
7. virtual work method
deflection of beams 9.1 double-integration method
definition of deflection definition of Double-integration method
>> The degree to which a structural element is displaced under load. It may >> The double-integration method is a useful tool in solving deflection of
refer to an angle or distance. a beam at any point by finding the equation of the elastic curve.
>> The vertical displacement of the centroid of each beam cross section with
respect to its original position. euler-bernoulli equation

deformation caused by internal Forces

1. Internal normal force - delta (displacement).
2. Internal torsional moment - phi (angle of twist).
3. Internal shear force and bending moment - deflection (lowercase v).

assumptions
1. Elastic >> ability of a deformed body to return to its original shape.
2. Negligible axial loading >> insignificant when compared to SF and BM.
3. Small deformation >> relatively small.
In calculus, the radius of curvature of a curve y=f(x) is given by rho.

elastic curve Deflection of beams is so small, such that

>> A curve or a function that characterizes the deformation of beams caused the slope of the elastic curve dy/dx is very
by internal shear force and internal bending moment. small, and squaring this expression the value
becomes practically negligible, hence :

methods of determining beam deflections

1. Double-integration method (D.I.M.)
2. Area-moment method (A.M.M.)
3. Conjugate beam method (C.B.M.)
4. Strain-energy method (Castigiliano’s Theorem)
5. Method of superposition
6. Three-moment equation
7. Virtual work method
slope and deflection formula >> The angle B/A may be described as the angle to the tangent at B measured
relative to, or with respect to, the tangent at A.

>> Consider two points m 1 and m 2 . These points are distance ds apart. The
tangents to the deflection curve at these points are lines m lp l and m 2p 2. The
normals to these tangents intersect at the center of curvature. The angle
d between the normals is given by the following equation in which r is
the radius of curvature and d is measured in radians. Because the normals
and the tangents m lp l and m 2p 2 are perpendicular, it follows that the angle
between the tangents is also equal to d .

9.2 area-moment method

definition of area-moment method
>> Another method for finding deflections and angles of rotation of beams.
Because the method is based upon two theorems related to the area of the
bending-moment diagram, it is called the moment-area method or area-moment
method.

FIRST THEOREM DERIVATION

>> Consider a segment AB of the deflection
curve of a beam. At point A the tangent AA’ is
at an angle A to the x axis, and at point
THEOREM i
B the tangent BB’ is at an angle B .
>> The change in slope between the tangents drawn to the elastic curve at
any two points A and B is equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the
>> The angle between the tangents, denoted
area of the moment diagram between these two points.
B/A , is equal to the difference between
B and A :
SECOND THEOREM DERIVATION
>> Consider again the deflection curve between points A and B. We draw the
tangent at point A and note that its intersection with a vertical line through
point B is at point B11 . The vertical distance between points B and B1 is
denoted t B/A. This distance is referred to as the tangential deviation of
B with respect to A.
>> More precisely, the distance t B/A is the THEOREM iI
vertical deviation of point B on the
The deviation of any point B relative to the tangent drawn to the elastic
deflection curve from the tangent at point
curve at any other point A, in a direction perpendicular to the original
A. The tangential deviation is positive when
position of the beam, is equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the moment
point B is above the tangent at A.
of an area about B of that part of the moment diagram between points A and B.

>>To determine the tangential deviation, we

again select two points m1 and m2 a small
distance apart on the deflection curve. The
angle between the tangents at these two
points is d(theta), and the segment on line
BB1 between these tangents is dt. Since the

angles between the tangents and the x axis are actually very small, we
see that the vertical distance dt is equal to x1d(theta), where x1 is the
horizontal distance from point B to the small element m1m2 . Since d(theta) RULES OF SIGN
= Mdx/EI , we obtain :
The distance dt represents the contribution made by the
bending of element m1m2 to the tangential deviation t B/A.
The expression x1Mdx/EI may be interpreted geometrically
as the first moment of the area of the shaded strip of width dx within the
M/EI diagram. This first moment is evaluated with respect to a vertical line
through point B. Integrating between points A and B, we get :

The integral on the left-hand side is equal to t B/A ,

that is, it is equal to the deviation of point B from
the tangent at A. The integral on the right-hand side
represents the first moment with respect to point B of
the area of the M/EI diagram between A and B. Therefore,
we can write :
moment diagram by parts 9.3 conjugate beam method
1. The bending moment caused by all forces to the left or to the right of
any section is equal to the respective algebraic sum of the bending moments
at that section caused by each load acting separately.
2. The moment of a load about a specified axis is always defined by the
equation of a spandrel.

Simple Rule : If the load tends to bend the beam upward, it is above
x-axis. If the load tends to bend the beam downward, it is below x-axis.
CHAPTER 10: INDETERMINATE BEAMS
1. S T A BILIT Y A N D D ET ERMIN A CY
2. T Y PES O F IN D ET ERMIN A T E BEA M S
3. MET HOD O F IN T EGRA T ION
4. MOMEN T - A REA MET HOD
5. MET HOD O F S U PERPO S IT IO N
6. T HREE- MOMEN T EQ U A T IO N
7. MOMEN T D IS T RIBU T ION MET HO D
8. S LOPE- D EFLECT IO N MET HO D
CHAPTER 11: BUCKLING OF COLUMN
1. work in progress ___
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