Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Raghu N. Prajapati
Assistant Professor
Nepal Engineering College
TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
Reference 83
Basic Exercise 84-110
What is GIS?
GIS is an acronym for:
• Geographic Information Systems (US)
• Geographical Information Systems (UK, Aust., Canada)
• Geographic Information Science (Academia)
An understanding of what Geographic Information Systems represent may
be helped by considering the component parts of the term separately.
Geographic...
This term is used because GIS tend to deal primarily with `geographic' or
`spatial' features. These objects can be referenced or related to a specific
location in space. The objects may be physical, cultural or economic in
nature. Features on a map for instance are pictorial representations of spatial
objects in the real world. Symbols, colors and line styles are used to
represent the different spatial features on the two-dimensional map.
Information...
This represents the large volumes of data, which are usually handled within a
GIS. All real world objects have their own particular set of characteristics or
descriptive attributes. This non-spatial alphanumeric data plus locational
information needs to be stored and managed for all spatial features of
interest.
Systems...
This term is used to represent the systems approach taken by GIS, whereby
complex environments are broken down into their component parts for ease
of understanding and handling but are considered to form an integrated
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whole. Computer technology has aided and even necessitated this approach
so that most information systems are now computer based.
Computer systems are becoming vital for the storage and manipulation of the
increasing volumes of data, the handling of complex spatial algorithms and
the integration of data of different scales, projections and formats. All of
which are essential to GIS.
Defining GIS
A GIS is an information system designed to work with data referenced by
spatial / geographical coordinates. In other words, GIS is both a database
system with specific capabilities for spatially referenced data as well as a set
of operations for working with the data. It may also be considered as a higher
order map.
Related types of mapping software may have some but not all of these
capabilities:
Not only in the previously mentioned fields but also in the social sciences
GIS can prove extremely useful. Besides the process of formulating
scenarios for an Environmental Impact Assessment, GIS can be a valuable
tool for sociologists to analyze administrative data such as population
distribution, market localization and other related features.
1.5.1 Hardware
It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. The
choice of hardware system range from 300MHz Personal Computers to
Super Computers having capability in Tera FLOPS. The computer forms the
backbone of the GIS hardware, which gets its input through the Scanner or a
digitizer board. Scanner converts a picture into a digital image for further
processing. The output of scanner can be stored in many formats e.g. TIFF,
1.5.2 Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and
display geographic information. GIS software in use is MapInfo, ARC/Info,
AutoCAD Map, etc. The software available can be said to be application
specific. When the low cost GIS work is to be carried out desktop MapInfo is
the suitable option. It is easy to use and supports many GIS feature. If the
user intends to carry out extensive analysis on GIS, ARC/Info is the
preferred option. For the people using AutoCAD and willing to step into
GIS, AutoCAD Map is a good option.
1.5.3 Data
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or
purchased from a commercial data provider. The digital map forms the basic
data input for GIS. Tabular data related to the map objects can also be
attached to the digital data. A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data
resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most organization to maintain
1.5.4 People
GIS users range from technical specialists who design and maintain the
system to those who use it to help them perform their everyday work. The
people who use GIS can be broadly classified into two classes. The
CAD/GIS operator, whose work is to vectorise the map objects? The use of
this vectorised data to perform query, analysis or any other work is the
responsibility of a GIS engineer/user.
1.5.5 Method
And above all a successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan
and business rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to
each organization. There are various techniques used for map creation and
further usage for any project. The map creation can either be automated
raster to vector creator or it can be manually vectorised using the scanned
images. The source of these digital maps can be either map prepared by
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any survey agency or satellite imagery.
Vector data consist of points, lines (arcs) and polygons formed from lines
joining x and y coordinates. Most map data are vector. Vector systems
handle databases and map output more effectively.
Raster data are organized in grids, one value per grid square. All
photographs and images are raster. Map data can be converted to raster
usually for purposes of analysis, which is faster and easier in raster than
vector.
Vector files
Vectors refer to the storage of information about points, lines and polygons
which is stored in terms of their co-ordinates. In below fig., a vector file
would describe a dark square by locating the corners a, b, c and d and filling
the polygon with the colour. In a vector file, every object has a location. This
is very useful for GIS analyses because it is possible to get information such
as how far apart two objects might be or whether two areas overlap.
a. Points:
have no length or area at the given scale
usually have a single X, Y coordinate
represent a feature that is too small to be displayed as a line or area
b. Arcs / Lines:
have length but no width
are accompanied by a set of coordinates
represent a geographical feature that is too narrow to have area, such
as a creek or road
A Line: On a map lines generally consist of two or more points joined
together by a straight line. The closeness of the points dictates the quality of
the linear representation, so a convoluted line would require many points to
represent it accurately. Lines have no width, and thus, a specific location
must be on one side of the line or the other, but never on the line itself.
Nodes - are special kinds of points, usually indicating the junction between
lines or the ends of line segments.
c. Polygons / Areas:
have an area that is given by the arcs/lines that make the boundary.
are used to represent features that have area (e.g. lakes, large cities
and islands)
Area or Polygon: This type of spatial information is composed of
connecting lines that form a closed area. It may be made up of a single
closed loop or a number of lines whose start and end points join. Simple
polygons are undivided areas, while complex polygons are divided into areas
of different characteristics.
Advantages
Compact data structure for homogenous areas.
Efficient encoding of topology.
Better suited for map output.
Create good Digital Elevation Model (DEM)/ Digital Terrain Model
(DTM).
Disadvantages
More complex data structure.
Overlay operations are more complex.
High spatial variability is less efficiently stored.
Cannot store (continuously varying) image data.
List of Coordinates
Vertex Dictionary
Characteristics
Simple 'grid' structure of rows and columns.
Based on cells or picture elements (pixels).
Linear feature (e.g. a road) is a contiguous set of cells.
Resolution based on size of grid (cell) -> the smaller the cell, the
higher the resolution.
Features are considered homogenous within a pixel.
Storage increases with the square of the resolution.
Advantages
A simple data structure.
Overlay operations are straight forward.
High spatial variability is efficiently represented (e.g. relief).
Only raster can store image data (e.g. photos).
Chain Coding: This data structure involves the tracing of the shape of each
object, and thus recording the outer pixels. To achieve chain coding it is
necessary to choose one object and a start point for the coding within the
matrix. It is necessary to trace the shape of the object, recording the direction
in which one is moving as well as the number of pixels traced until one
changes direction.
Facilities Management
Can locate underground pipes and cables for maintenance, planning.
Spatial Questions
“How many people work with GIS in the major centers of Delhi" OR
“Which centers lie within 10 Kms. of each other? ", OR “What is the shortest
route passing through all these centers". These are spatial questions that can
only be answered using latitude and longitude data and other information
such as the radius of earth. Geographic Information Systems can answer such
questions.
A GIS must be able to accept various types of data from various sources.
Time, money, accuracy, and suitability are considered while deciding how
much of your database you create in-house and how much you obtain in
existing digital form. Creating a database will consume a substantial portion
of an initial GIS budget and database maintenance should be considered in
any proposed GIS budget.
There are six main methods used to input data in a GIS: Keyboard,
Coordinate Geometry, Digitizing, Scanning, Global Positioning Systems
(GPS), and File Import
2.2.1 Keyboard
This is mostly for attribute data, coordinates are mostly collected by 3 and 5
below
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2.2.2 Co-ordinate geometry (COGO)
This is most commonly used for high precision municipal data, based on
azimuth / distance from known points, rather than a grid system such as
UTM. It is not common in natural resources.
2.2.3 Digitizing
Characteristics
Line following with puck cross-hairs in point or stream mode.
Usually inputs 'classified' map data with attributes.
Tablet sizes (12" x 18" -> 36" x 48").
Cheap but tedious, can also be done 'heads-up' from computer
monitor.
2.2.4 Scanning
Characteristics
Electronic detector moves across image.
Flat-bed (up to 11" by 17") and drum (full sheet).
Most suitable for continuous image or full map sheet.
Creates raster data: 1-8 bit or 24 bit (3 x 8 bit).
High resolution versus large storage.
Creates single layer of values (monochrome) or 3 to multi layers
(colour).
Frame: The frame holds the entire map together and defines the bounds
within which the map information is displayed. It should be present but
should not be too thick so as to distract the user from the contents of the
map.
Title: The title is probably the most important map element since it tells the
user what information to look for in the map. A good map title should
contain information about the location of the study area and
objectives/purpose of study in a short and concise manner.
Legend: The legend (key) explains what the colours, patterns, line types and
symbologies on the map signify. The closer a symbol represents the nature of
the entity, the lesser the explanation required. For example, a wiggy blue line
clearly identifies the entity as a river.
Scale: The scale bar is an important element since it provides the user with
an indication of the geographical size of the area. Sometimes the scale of a
map is represented only by a representative fraction like 1:50,000. These
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should always be augmented with a scale bar because if a map is enlarged or
reduced the representative fraction in the original scale is no longer valid at
the new scale and could be misleading.
Charts: Bar, line and pie charts that graphically measure numeric data in a
point data layer can be displayed on a map as annotations. If the data
contains both actual and forecast or target values, radar charts can be used as
annotations to optimally display this information. A radar chart is similar to a
pie chart, but uses the radius of each pie slice to represent actual values as a
percentage of target values. Chart annotations can only be created using the
numeric data from a point data layer and the charts are linked to each point
location.
North Arrow: A north arrow orients a map. Normal orientation has a north
arrow pointing to the top edge of the map, but abnormal orientations are
sometimes necessary to improve the fit of an awkwardly shaped study area
into a map. The north arrow should be drawn simply and at a size that does
not clutter the rest of the map.
Label: The label is a piece of text that is used to give a name or value to a
geographical entity. For example, settlements and rivers are labeled with
their names.
Grids: Grids display a series of dotted lines that are spaced evenly in the
vertical and horizontal directions.
Outline and filled box: An outline box or a filled box can be created to
enhance the display. For example, an outline box can be placed around a
legend. Or, if a legend is placed on top of an image, a filled box behind the
legend can highlight the legend from the image.
Topographic maps are general maps that portray a section of the Earth's
surface and accompanying features. These features usually represent the
visible landscape and terrain.
Thematic maps are more specific than topographic maps. Thematic maps
depict information which may or may not be directly observable such as
population density, forest type, land use, or amount of rainfall.
These maps are prepared to serve some special purposes with reference to a
specific theme.
• Astronomical Map - Showing heavenly features
• Relief maps - Shows elevation differences of the surface.
• Geological Maps - Shows rock features, earth crust of earth etc.
• Weather Maps - Shows weather condition - Daily, Monthly, Annual etc.
• Climatic Maps - Shows climatic conditions.
• Vegetation Map - Shows Flora
• Cultural Map - Shows Cultural Pattern
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• Political Map - Shows boundaries between different states
• Military Map - Shows routes and points for military purposes.
• Historical Map - Shows past events
• Tourist Map - Shows tourist's important features
Since GIS data are stored in a database, and not as a cartographic product, it
is not necessary to make a major distinction between topographic and
thematic data. Rather, GIS data can be recognized as separable into two
types:
2.3.4 Scale
It is both impossible and impractical to represent a section of the Earth's
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surface at its full size. Therefore maps and GIS data show a scaled portion of
the Earth's surface.
Scale = the amount of reduction (expressed as a ratio)
e.g. 1:10,000 => a reduction in size / detail by 10,000 times
=> 1cm = 10,000cm (or 1cm = 100m)
A larger scale is reduced by a lesser amount. Hence 1:50,000 is a larger scale
than 1:250,000.
Data collected at a specific scale are suitable only for similar scales
The range of digitized coordinates depends upon the density of the wires
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(called digitizing resolution) and the settling of the digitizing software. A
digitizing table is normally a rectangular area in the middle, separated from
the outer boundary of the table by a small rim. Outside of this so-called
active area of the digitizing table, no coordinates are recorded. The lower left
corner of the active area will have the co-ordinates X=0 and Y=0. Therefore,
make sure that the (part of the) map that you want to digitize is always fixed
within the active area.
In the case of scanned lines maps, such as topographic maps, the result is a
black and while image. Black lines are converted to a value of 1, and the
white areas in between lines will obtain a value of 0 in the scanning image.
These images, with only two possibilities (1 or 0) are also called binary
images.
The raster image is computer processed to improve the image quality and is
then edited and checked by an operator. It is then converted into vector
format by special computer programs which are different for color/grey tone
images and binary images.
2.5 Geo-referencing
Lines of longitude (meridians) - converge at Poles
Lines of latitude (parallels) - are equally spaced
Not a rectangular system - one degree varies in size
The graticule is not a 'rectangular' system and is hence poorly suited to GIS,
since 'one degree', and square areas, are not uniform across the world, nor in
map projections. As a further complication, since we have a '0' line both in
latitude and longitude with values either side, latitude and longitude in
computer mapping / GIS involves negative numbers south of the equator
(latitude) and west of the Greenwich Meridian. The system most commonly
used in Nepal at least is the Modified Universal Transverse Mercator
(MUTM) system.
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2.6 Projection Systems
2.6.1 Map projections
A map projection is a method of showing the 3-D planet Earth on a 2-D
plane, inevitably causing distortions. The distortion can occur in distance,
area, shape, or direction. Each projection will result in different types and
amounts of distortion.
The 3 main types of projections are:
Azimuthal (or planar) - all points maintain their true compass bearing.
Cylindrical - lines of longitude and are of equal length.
Conic - distortion increases away from the standard parallel (where the cone
touches the globe.)
UTM zone characters designate 8 degree zones extending north and south
from the equator.
There are special UTM zones between 0 degrees and 36 degrees longitude
above 72 degrees latitude and a special zone 32 between 56 degrees and 64
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degrees north latitude.
Each zone has a central meridian. Zone 14, for example, has a central
meridian of 99 degrees west longitude. The zone extends from 96 to 102
degrees west longitude.
Eastings are measured from the central meridian (with a 500km false easting
Cone: the GG sits under a cone, touching along a pre-selected line of latitude
--> conic projections. This is developed by cutting the cone at the base to
the apex and unrolling.
In addition, there is a fourth group that does not use a conceptual generating
globe. These are known as geometric and also 'conventional', and are
generally 'pseudo-cylindrical'.
Azimuthal Projections
These azimuthal projections are the earliest types ad were devised by the
'Ancient Greeks'. In each case, the globe touches the projection plane at a
point: the simplest case is the polar.
a. Gnomonic
Point of origin is at the centre of the GG.
Scale increases rapidly from the centre, so the equator can't be
shown.
The advantage of this projection is that it is the ONLY one where all
great circles are straight lines.
b. Stereographic
Point of origin is at far pole.
Scale increases from centre, but not as much as gnomonic.
Can show one hemisphere, but with increasing distortion.
It is a conformal projection.
c. Orthographic
Point of origin at infinity (like a projector), or distant planet.
Scale decreases from centre, can only show 1 hemisphere.
It shows the perspective as seen from space, e.g. the earth from the
moon.
d. Equidistant
Light source is located between stereographic and orthographic.
Can only be approximated by perspective methods: hence is a non-
perspective projection
All meridians are standard lines, so equatorial areas are exaggerated
An advantage is that the parallels are equally spaced (polar case)
e. Equal-Area
Origin between orthographic and equidistant to compensate for
stretching, not possible exactly by perspective methods; but it is
equal-area.
Each of the five has equatorial and oblique versions, which are less
easy to construct, but can be centered on any chosen location, yes
even Prince George.
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2.6.8 Cylindrical Projections
The cylindrical projections date from the 16th century. The globe is
'wrapped' by a cylinder, which is 'unwrapped' at a convenient line (180
degrees E/W most commonly). The equator becomes the standard line. All
projections have a rectangular grid, with parallels of equal length. Meridians
are at right angles, equally spaced. They are especially well known as a
result of the widespread use of Mercator's projection, for better or worse.
b. Transverse Mercator
Standard line is on a selected line of longitude (meridian).
This projection is the basis for the (Universal) UTM system and is
used in many countries, including
Australia, Canada, US and UK.
Each UTM zone is 6 degrees of longitude wide, each Central
Meridian is a standard line.
The UTM system consists of 60 UTM projections
a. Sinusoidal
Central area has least distortion (as opposed to the band around
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equator in cylindrical).
Meridians are not at right angles. Equal area is preserved at the cost
of shape.
Parallels equally spaced, correct length.
d. Robinson's
Adopted by National Geographic in 1988.
The poles are shown as lines to preserve shape in extremes.
Meridians are lines that extend halfway around the globe from the North
Pole to the South Pole. By international agreement, mapmakers begin
counting meridians from the line that passes through Greenwich, England, a
borough of London. The Greenwich meridian is also known as the prime
meridian. Meridians are used to measure longitude - that is, the angular
distance east or 7west from the prime meridian. Like latitude, longitude is
measured in degrees of a circle. Meridians, which are sometimes called lines
of longitude, run from 0o at Greenwich to 180o. The meridian lies halfway
around the globe from the prime meridian. Between the prime meridian and
the 180o meridian are lines of west longitude (west of the prime meridian)
and the lines of east longitude (east of the prime meridian). Longitude and
latitude can be used to pinpoint any place on earth. Distances and areas must
be calculated using spherical geometry and the Earth's radii to the points in
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question. In applications, latitude and longitude are usually used in
describing major land areas.
Accuracy is relates to how "true" the data is to the real world. This also
relates to textual data. Spatial data accuracy can be a direct result of both the
collection and capture processes. Consideration should also be given to:
“how well does a GIS represent the real world and how well do GIS analyses
compute the accurate values?"
Spatial data that is captured can only be as good as the source maps from
which it is being captured. Another significant issue to consider is that of
precision. This is a term used in computing that often refers to the number of
decimal places or significant digits in a measurement. Precision is not,
however, the same as accuracy. It measures the exactness with which a value
is expressed, whether the value is right or wrong. A large number of
significant digits therefore, do not necessarily indicate that the measurement
is accurate. It is important to realize that a GIS may work at high precision,
mostly much higher than the accuracy of the data itself.
There are varieties of data analysis or data modeling techniques that can be
used, but the entity—relationship model approach (Chen approach) has met
with the widest acceptance. Chen’s approach is based on a number of
fundamental concepts including entity sets, attributes, domains, relationship
sets and mappings. Entity sets represent the generic structure of phenomena
which are relevant to the specific database being designed. They might be
towns, census districts, hotels or national parks for example. Each entity
belonging to a particular entity set will have a number of characteristics or
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attributes. In the case of census districts these might include an identification
number, X, Y coordinates of a centroid and a list of census variables. Each
attribute will have a range of possible values which constitutes its domain or
value-set. For example, identification numbers may range between 1 and
9999 or hotels may have tourist guide quality ratings between 1 and 5.
Relationship sets are formally defined as subsets of the cross product of two
or more entity sets. The specific relationship between individual members of
the respective entity sets provides the sub-setting mechanism, for example
the fact that certain members of the hot el set are located in a particular town.
Specific relationships or mappings between entities sets may take a variety
of forms. One-to-one mappings refer to the situation where, for example,
each town has one and only one set of municipal offices, while a one-to-
many mapping would be where a town had a number of hotels. Many-to-
many mappings deal with cases such as that of wholesalers distributing
goods to different shopping centers. Each centre will be served by multiple
wholesalers and each wholesaler will distribute goods to several centers. A
number of refinements in the specification of relationships are possible
depending, for instance on whether or not they are defined to be mandatory
(every hotel must be located in one and only one town).
Important new approaches, which have not yet established a major presence
in the commercial marketplace, are discussed in a later section. While some
software packages may have characteristics drawn from more than one of the
above types, in general the category into which any given package falls gives
a clear indication of the way in which it structures data sets and their
interrelationships at the level of logical database design. It should he noted
also that the first two categories developed from refinement and
improvement of commercial approaches to data management and are largely
represented by older systems. While the last two are in turn both more recent
in origin and more soundly based on theoretical, rather than pragmatic
considerations. Choosing any one of these different types of system will have
a major impact on the way in which the data model for a particular
application problem maps onto the underlying database structure.
1) Hierarchical database
2) Network Database
• Network database extend the hierarchical model and allow from many
to one relationship to be represented. Street patterns, shown in the
graphic above, illustrate networks. When modeled in this way, many
streets can be associated with one intersection. The network and the
hierarchical model make extensive use of physical pointers to identify
relationships. Because of the requirements to traverse the database
along physical pointers, hierarchical and network databases have an
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embedded implementation scheme?
• In this model the data are arranged in classes and sub-classes, which
are a set of objects grouped into categories and with link of various
kinds. All objects in the same class share a set of properties (attribute)
and methods (requests)
The table construction is used in several areas other than relational database
systems. Spreadsheets, arrays, and statistical matrices are, for example,
structured in this way. In these other areas there is a different terminology,
however. Within an array, an individual value is termed an element; while
within statistics, rows, or observations, are distinguished from columns, or
variables. These are not necessarily relational structures, however, since in
addition, a relational table, or relation, must conform to the following six
properties:
The data dictionary can be placed into a database file for on – line listing. It
can then be used for automatic map and report generation.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - as the energy travels from its source
to the target, it will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it
passes through. This interaction may take place a second time as the energy
travels from the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the
target through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the
properties of both the target and the radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been
scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in
contact with the target) to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
NOAA
It is the first generation of National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration satellites and was as the first operation operational remote
sensing satellite system. The third generation NOAA satellites are also
successfully used for vegetation monitoring, apart from meteorological
monitoring. It is equipped with Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
(AVHRR) sensors, and is established at an altitude of 850 km. in polar orbit.
GMS
Geo-synchronous meteorological satellite. It is established at an altitude of
36,000 km, and its main purpose is meteorological observations
Landsat
Landsat is established at an altitude of 700 kms is a polar orbit and is used
mainly for land area observation.
SPOT
(Système Pour l'Observation de la Terre) is a series of Earth observation
imaging satellites designed and launched by CNES (Centre National
d'Études Spatiales) of France, with support from Sweden and Belgium.
SPOT-1 was launched in 1986, with successors following every three or four
years. All satellites are in sun-synchronous, near-polar orbits at altitudes
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around 830 km above the Earth, which results in orbit repetition every 26
days. They have equator crossing times around 10:30 AM local solar time.
SPOT was designed to be a commercial provider of Earth observation data,
and was the first satellite to use along-track, or pushbroom scanning
technology.
IRS
The Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite series, combines features from
both the Landsat MSS/TM sensors and the SPOT HRV sensor. The third
satellite in the series, IRS-1C, launched in December, 1995 has three sensors:
a single-channel panchromatic (PAN) high resolution camera, a medium
resolution four-channel Linear Imaging Self-scanning Sensor (LISS-III), and
a coarse resolution two-channel Wide Field Sensor (WiFS). The
accompanying table outlines the specific characteristics of each sensor.
Land cover maps or vegetation maps classified from remote-sensing data can
be overlaid on to other geographic data to enable analysis for environmental
monitoring and its change. Image data are sometimes also used as image
maps, with an overlay of political boundaries, roads, rivers, etc. Such an
image map can be successfully used for visual interpretation (Figure 5.5 and
5.6).
The light, which “our eyes - our remote sensors” - can detect, is part of the
visible spectrum. It is important to recognize how small the visible portion
is relative to the rest of the spectrum. There is a lot of radiation around us,
which is "invisible" to our eyes, but can be detected by other remote sensing
instruments and used to our advantage. The visible wavelengths cover a
range from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 µm. The longest visible wavelength is
red and the shortest is violet. Common wavelengths of what we perceive as
particular colours from the visible portion of the spectrum are listed below. It
is important to note that this is the only portion of the spectrum we can
associate with the concept of colours.
Violet: 0.4 - 0.446 µm
Blue: 0.446 - 0.500 µm
Green: 0.500 - 0.578 µm
Yellow: 0.578 - 0.592 µm
Orange: 0.592 - 0.620 µm
Red: 0.620 - 0.7 µm
Blue, green, and red are the primary colours or wavelengths of the visible
spectrum. They are defined as such because no single primary colour can be
created from the other two, but all other colours can be formed by combining
blue, green, and red in various proportions. Although we see sunlight as a
uniform or homogeneous colour, it is actually composed of various
wavelengths of radiation in primarily the ultraviolet, visible and infrared
portions of the spectrum. The visible portion of this radiation can be shown
in its component colours when sunlight is passed through a prism, which
bends the light in differing amounts according to wavelength.
The next portion of the spectrum of interest is the infrared (IR) region which
covers the wavelength range from approximately 0.7 µm to 100 µm - more
than 100 times as wide as the visible portion. The infrared region can be
divided into two categories based on their radiation properties - the reflected
IR, and the emitted or thermal IR. Radiation in the reflected IR region is
used for remote sensing purposes in ways very similar to radiation in the
visible portion. The reflected IR covers wavelengths from approximately 0.7
µm to 3.0 µm. The thermal IR region is quite different from the visible and
reflected IR portions, as this energy is essentially the radiation that is emitted
The portion of the spectrum of more recent interest to remote sensing is the
microwave region from about 1 mm to 1 m. This covers the longest
wavelengths used for remote sensing. The shorter wavelengths have
properties similar to the thermal infrared region while the longer
wavelengths approach the wavelengths used for radio broadcasts.
The unit of measurement is the nanometre (nm) and also the micrometre.
1 micrometre = 1000 nanometres
1 metre = 1 million micrometres
The major portions of the EM spectrum used in remote sensing for mapping
and GIS applications are:
The basic GIS functions are those that display all or a selection of the objects
under investigation. This may include graphic elements and selected
attributes. Such analysis operations are known as query functions. They can
be divided into two categories -spatial and attribute.
All spatial query functions are based around the GIS features (points, lines,
polygons, surfaces) and there are five geometric functions to investigate -
circle, rectangle, polygon, and line and point search. These can be developed
into a host of more complicated queries.
An attribute query relies on the non-geometric datasets linked to spatial data.
The queries are generally broken down into a series of elements that initially
identify the field of interest and then the search can be carried out using
specific characteristics. Results may be in the form of a table, or displayed as
spatial data. Criteria for attribute queries may be based on numeric or textual
searches or alphanumeric matching. In addition, the database software
associated with the GIS may have a query language available. These are
designed to enable the user to tailor queries in a particular manner.
Logical Operations:
Use either algebra or logical operations
Searches can be further developed to employ a set of algebra or logical
operations.
This are-
> greater than
< less than
= equal to
Alternatively, a combination of the above can be used. All GIS packages
should be able to perform these operations, plus perform Arithmetic (+; -; *)
and Boolean operations (and, or, not, xor).
The conditional statement can involve Boolean (logical) operators and, or,
not, xor (exclusive of or) or relational (conditional) operators=, >, <, <> (not
equal to).
Raster and vector models differ significantly in the way overlay operations
are implemented. Overlay operations are usually performed more efficiently
in raster-based systems. In many GISs a hybrid approach is used that takes
advantage of the capabilities of both data models. A vector-based system
may implement some functions in the raster domain by performing a vector-
to-raster conversion on the input data, doing the processing as a raster
operation, and converting the raster result back to a vector file. The region
wide, or "cookie cutter," approach to overlay analysis allows natural features,
such as forest stand boundaries or soil polygons, to become the spatial
area(s) which will be analyzed on another map
The raster GIS provides the ability to perform map layers mathematically.
The map algebraic function uses mathematical expressions to create new
raster layers by comparing them.
Boolean operators (and, not, or, xor) use Boolean logic (true or false) on the
input values. Output values of true are written as 1 and false as 0.
Below fig. illustrates land-use and land-cover changes over time in the
Kathmandu Valley (Figure 5.3). The analysis is done by overlaying land-
use/land-cover data from different dates. The figure shows the land-use/land-
cover data for 1978 and 1995, and the changes between 1978 and 1995
derived from these data. This is the analysis of connectivity between points,
lines and polygons in terms of distance, area, travel time, optimum paths, etc.
Connectivity analysis consists of the following analyses.
Fig.5.3: Land coverage changes in Kathmandu valley between 1978 and 1995
Visualisation
Visualisation is defined as the translation or conversion of spatial data from a
database into graphics. These graphics are in the form of maps that enable
the user to perceive the structure of the phenomenon or the area represented.
The visualisation process is guided by the saying how do I say what to
whom, and is it effective? How refers to the cartographic methods that are
used for making the graphics or map. I refer to the cartographer or GIS user
who is preparing the map. Say refers to the semantics that represent the
spatial data. What refers to the spatial data and its characteristics, and the
purpose of the map? Who refers to the maps audience? The usefulness of a
map depends upon the following factors.
6.1.5 Accuracy
GIS has simplified the process of information extraction and communication.
Combining or integrating data sets has become possible. However, this has
created the possibility of integrating irrelevant or inconsistent data. The user
should be aware of aspects of data quality or accuracy such as What is the
source of data? Are the places at correct locations? Are the attribute values
correct? Are the themes correctly labelled? Are the data complete?
Position
The position of the point, line or area features is of course, given by the
information already contained in the map. However the position of these
features in itself gives plenty of information. For example, the distribution of
landslides connotes the most susceptible areas.
Form
The form of objects is a very important variable. The form of the features is
also determined by the information on the map. However, the cartographer
can manipulate the forms of objects, by generation. The form of point, line or
area features is important for reading the map: complex forms attract the eye
and suggest complexity continuous lines imply continuous boundaries; and
broken lines imply uncertainty.
Texture
Texture is defined as the variation in density of the graphical elements under
constant value, i. e. with the same overall grey expression. Increased density
contrasts attract interest.
Value
It is visual variable that refers to the values on a grey scale, ranging from
white to black. Increasing darkness implies increasing importance. The
higher the quantitative value, the darker it is represented.
Size
The higher the value in size, the larger the symbol. Thicker lines are more
important than thin lines.
Colour
Visual variables of colour:
Soft copy output is the format as viewed on a computer screen. This may be
text or maps / images in black and white or colour. Because the output is
displayed on a computer screen and can be erased from the screen at any
time, this type of output is regarded as non permanent. Soft copy allows the
operator to interact and to preview data before it final output.
Characteristics of Infrastructures
Infrastructures are designed for multiple users, often for multiple purposes
- Users may or may not have to pay fees for usage e.g. telephone
network, roads statistical (census) data: cost of individual
establishment is prohibitive. For an IS to work, following issues have
to be resolved
- Technical standards
- Access, usage cost, financing
- Institutional / organizational issues (who is responsible for what)\
c) Spatial Modeling
- Powerful software tools
- Spatial database management
d) Satellite Technology
- Remote Sensing
- Radar Satellite
f) Scaning Technology
g) Communication Technology
- Internet
- High Speed Modern
h) Multimedia Technology
- Audio / Video
- CD / ROM
i) Printing Technology
- True colour printing capacity
Most users do not generate their own elevation data, they purchase or acquire
files.
a. Mass points (lattices)
b. Contour lines
c. GRIDs (interpolated from points, or lines)
7.6.2 Raster
Raster data are stored as elevation values per pixel: Integer stores actual
elevations in feet or meters
7.6.3 Vector
Stored in Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN): a series of triangles
(Delauney / Thiessen Polygons).. Heights and x, y at vertices: topology is
stored in the relationship between nodes, edges and slope facets.
GIS gives area, but also 'slope area' which is more different for steeper slopes
c. Aspect:
Calculated in degrees of azimuth from north in a clockwise direction, hence
north is both 0 and 360. Cardinal directions are 90 (E), 180 (S), 270 (W), 0
and 360 (N). Note that 0 = 360! Flat slopes are given a unique integer for
aspect (e.g. -1 or 9999)
d. Shaded relief:
Describes the amount of reflected light from a surface assuming given light
source; angle can be selected, but NW origin is usual (315, 45) used in GIS
map output, not analysis.
1.0 Shrestha B. et.al (2001), GIS for Beginners, Introductory GIS Concepts
and Hands on Exercises, ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal
2.0 Jha R.N. (2005), Introduction to Geographical Information System, M.
Sc. GIS Manual, Water Resources Engineering Program, Institute of
Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Nepal.
3.0 Centre for Environment, Natural Resources and Information
Management (2001), Training Manual for GIS Tools Operator for
Department of Land Information and Archives, Kathmandu, Nepal.
4.0 University of Arkansas Libraries, ArcGIS Desktop Tutorial
5.0 Oregon Environmental Public Health Tracking Program, ArcGIS Quick
Start Manual
6.0 ICIMOD “Training Manual on GIS Application and Remote Sensing.”
A. What is ArcMap?
Arc map is the primary display component of ArcGIS. It includes
tools for working with tables, visualizing, analyzing and charting
data and creating maps. You can save, print or export maps to other
applications such as word documents or PowerPoint presentations.
B. Opening a Map
C. Table of Contents
The Table of Contents shows the data layers used in the map. It is
used primarily to turn layers on and off, access the layer properties,
and rearrange the order in which the layers are drawn on the map.
To turn a layer on or off: Check the box next to the layer's name
Source tab:
The Source tab at the bottom of the table of contents shows the
layers the way that they are organized in the source folders or
databases. If a data table is included in your map, you can only see it
in the Source tab.
Data view:
Data View is for exploring, classifying, analyzing, displaying, and
querying the data (titles, North arrows and scale bars are not
visible).
Layout view:
Layout View is used to prepare your map for printing or for export
to another application like a word document or PowerPoint
presentation. In this view, you will see how the final version of the
map will appear. You can add borders, scale bars, North arrows,
legends, titles and text.
2. Tools Toolbar
With the ArcMap toolbar Tools you can explore and query map data
to get information. You can point to features to find out what they
are; you can examine the attributes of a particular layer, search the
data to find features with a specific characteristic and measure
distances on the map.
Click the Pan Button on the Tools toolbar to move the map
image.
C. Full Extent
Click the Full Extent button to return to the full extent of the
data and show the whole map.
D. Previous Extent
E. Select Elements
E. Select Features
Features can be selected by attributes, location or graphics using the
select features icon. See the Arc GIS Help for detailed instruction about
using this tool.
F. Identify Features
Click the Identify tool The Identify Results dialog box opens.
Click the pointer over the map feature you want to identify. The
feature under the pointer that is in the top layer will be identified. A
box will open with the attribute information for that feature.
H. Measuring distance
Click the Measure button on the Tools toolbar.
Use the mouse pointer to click and draw a line representing the
distance you want to measure. Click once for each line segment or at
each corner. Double-click to end the line.
The distance will read out at the bottom left side of the screen.
3. Standard Toolbar
A. Undo - Redo
Undo reverses the last command or action; Redo re-instates the
previously undone command or action.
B. Add Data
Adding a layer using Add Data button:
Click the Add Data button. Click the Look in dropdown arrow and
navigate to the folder that contains the layer. Click the layer (.lyr) or
other data type and click Add. The new layer will appear on your map.
C. Data Editor Toolbar
The Data Editor Toolbar contains the various commands you will need
to edit geographic features in your database. You must add the Editor
Toolbar to ArcMap before you can edit data.
Adding the Editor toolbar:
Click Tools, then click Editor Toolbar, or
Click the View menu; click Toolbars, then check Editor.
A. ArcCatalog
ArcCatalog is the database design and data management component of
ArcGIS.
B. ArcToolbox
The ArcToolbox is a separate window inside ArcGIS. The toolboxes are
sets of tools used for advanced data management and analysis. There are
hundreds of tools grouped into toolsets in the Toolbox.
Opening the ArcToolbox window:
B. Help ?
When you need more information or want to learn how to perform a
specific task, use the Help system. It provides detailed information
about tools, commands, and dialog boxes.
Editing the attributes (data) takes place in an edit session. When you
begin an edit session, you will see this icon next to the Options
When you have finished editing the data table, you can save your work,
end the edit session and export the table as a .dbf if desired.
Saving edits:
When you're finished editing, you can save any changes you've made or
quit editing without saving. You can also save the edits you've made at
any time by clicking Save Edits from the Editor menu. Any edits you
have made are saved to the database.
To add a record:
Click Editor on the Editor Toolbar and click Start Editing.
Right-click the layer or table you want to edit and then click Open
Attribute Table.
Click the Move to end of table button or scroll to the end of the
table.
Click a cell in the last empty record and type a new value. A new
record is added at the bottom of the table.
D. Deleting Records
Click Editor on the Editor Toolbar and click Start Editing.
Right-click the layer or table you want to edit and click Open
Attribute Table.
E. Undoing Edits
To undo a record entered in the table, click the Undo button. It will
undo a row at a time (not individual cells). Clicking the Undo button
again will delete another row. You can undo rows made during the
current edit session back to the point at which you last saved your edits.
F. Exporting Data
To export edited data for geocoding or publication onto a network
system you will need to export the table as a database file (.dbf).
Click Options at the bottom of the attribute table.
Click Export.
Click Export All Records.
Browse to the location you want to store the database file.
Rename the file as needed. Click OK.
Rearranging columns:
Click the heading of the column you want to move.
Click and drag the column heading. A red line indicates where the
column will be positioned.
Drop the column. After you drop it, the column will appear in the
new position.
When making a graduated symbol map, choose the range of symbol sizes
carefully. Each symbol size should be distinct. The largest symbols need to
be small enough that neighboring symbols don't overlap too much and the
smallest symbol needs to be big enough that it can be seen.
Right-click the quantitative layer you want to show with graduated
symbols in the table of contents and click Properties.
Click the Symbology tab.
Click Quantities and click Graduated symbols.
Click the Value dropdown and click the field that contains the
quantitative value you want to map.
Click the Normalization dropdown arrow and click a field to
normalize the data. ArcMap divides this field into the Value to
create a ratio.
Type the minimum and maximum symbol sizes and click Classify.
Click the Method dropdown; click the classification method you
want.
Click the Classes dropdown arrow; click the number of classes you
want to display. Or, click Exclusion to remove unwanted values
from the classification, for example, null values or extreme outliers.
Click OK on the Classification dialog box, click OK on the dialog
box.
Right-click the quantitative layer you want to show with dot densities
in the table of contents and click Properties.
Click the Symbology tab.
Click Quantities and click Dot density.
Click the field under Field Selection with the values you want to
map.
Click the arrow button to add fields to the field list.
Double-click a dot symbol in the field list to change its properties.
Type the dot size or click the slider to adjust the size.
Type the dot value or click the slider to adjust the value.
Check Maintain Density to preserve the dot density when you zoom
in. The dot size will increase so an area will visually appear as
dense. If unchecked, the dot size will not change. Click OK.
A. Page Setup
Setting page size and printer properties:
Right-click the page in layout view and click Page and Print Setup,
or click File and click Page and Print Setup.
Click the Name dropdown arrow and click the printer you want to
use.
Click the Printer Paper Size dropdown arrow and click the page
size that's appropriate for your map.
Click OK.
(Because the Use Printer Paper Settings box is checked, the Map Page
Width and Height text boxes will be updated with the new page size
and the page orientation.)
Adding a title:
Click the Insert menu and click Title.
Type a title for the map.
Click and drag the title into place with
Modifying a title:
With the title selected, click the Font dropdown on the Draw
toolbar; click a font.
Click the font size dropdown; click a size.
Click Bold, Italic, or Underline to change the style of the text.
Click the Font Color dropdown and click a color.
Adding text:
Click the Insert menu and click Text.
Type the text you want to appear on the map layout; press enter
Right click on text, then click Properties reformat the text.
Click OK.
Click and drag the scale text into position on your map.
Adding a legend
A legend shows the symbols used to represent features on the map. By
default, the legend patches are points, straight lines, or rectangles that match
the map symbols. You can customize the legend patches.
For example, you might want to show four divisions rather than three or
show 100 meters per division instead of 200. You might also want to
change the units that the scale bar shows or adjust how those units are
represented.
Printing Maps
Previewing a map before printing:
Click the File menu and click Print Preview. Examine the preview.
Click Print if you want to continue and print. Otherwise, click Close.
Printing a map:
Click the File menu and click Print. Verify the Printer is set
properly.
Verify the Output Image Quality is set properly.
Click Scale Map to fit Printer Paper.
Click the Number of Copies arrows to change the number of printed
maps. Or, Check Print to File and you will be prompted for a
filename after you click OK. Click OK.
Exporting Maps
Once you've created a map, you can export it as another file type
that is easily used with other applications. These are: PDF, EPS, AI,
and EMF.
Exporting a map to an interchange and print format:
Click the File menu and click Export Map.
Navigate to where you want to save the export file.
Click the Save as type dropdown and click PDF, EPS, AI, or EMF.
Type a File name for the export file.
Click the Options arrow to expand the options.
Choose an output resolution on the General tab. (300 dpi is the
default for these formats and is usually a good choice.)