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Vermiculture as a tool for domestic wastewater management

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Water Science and Technology , 2003,(48),(11/12),125-132
Vermiculture as a tool for Domestic Wastewater management

O. Bajsa1, J Nair2, K. Mathew3, G.E. Ho4

P P P P P P P

1. bajsa@essun1.murdoch.edu.au, 2. jnair@central.murdoch.edu.au, 3.mathew@essun1.murdoch.edu.au,

HTU UTH HTU UTH HTU UTH

4. ho@central.murdoch,edu.au
HTU UTH

Environmental Technology Centre, Murdoch University, Western Australia 6150

Abstract

Organic waste management is a growing issue due to the unsustainable practices of its disposal. Sewage
treatment plants are designed to treat wastewater to produce a safe effluent. However, one of the by-
products, the sewage sludge which is disposed off in landfill or used as fertilizer in agricultural operation
is high in pathogens. Sustainability can be achieved by Vermicomposting of organic matter which
involves accelerated cycling of nutrients though a closed cycle whereby waste products are put to
productive end use.

Vermicomposting and vermifiltration are natural waste management processes relying on the use of
worms to convert organic wastes to stable soil enriching compounds. Domestic wastewater management
can be accommodated through these processes in a sustainable manner. A considerable reduction in
pathogens has been noticed in the end product to a level that it can be safely applied to land.

This paper provides an overview of the system characteristics of management systems utilising
vermiculture, to manage wastewater. The process can be used in a small scale for household waste
treatment to rural or urban waste management.

Keywords: Organic waste, Vermicomposting, Wastewater

Introduction

Human beings produce wastes, be it by excretion or through using and manufacturing materials. In the
past this pollution has not been a problem, as the population density was low and the waste products were
of organic origin and they could be reabsorbed by nature. With the increase in population density
however, there has also been an increase in waste products. Human wastes such as excreta were dealt with
in the past by the night-men, who collected these excreta and disposed of them. With the industrial age
and the introduction of the flush toilets around the1870’s the human excreta were removed from sight
(Crystal, 1994). However, this removal of excreta and other non-organic industrial wastes by water started
to become a problem, as the rivers and oceans could not deal with this large influx of wastes. This in turn
resulted in the pollution of the potable water to an extent that people down stream began to become sick
from these pollutants. New solutions had to be sought to amend this problem.

Sewage treatment plants are designed to treat wastewater to produce a safe effluent. However, one of the
by-products, the sewage sludge that need to be disposed of is high in pathogens Escherichia coli, cysts of
Water Science and Technology , 2003,(48),(11/12),125-132
protozoa, parasitic ova, heavy metals such as lead and cadmium and toxic chemicals from industrial
wastes and agriculture (Burge & Marsh, 1978).

This paper describes how vermicomposting and vermifiltration can be used to treat organic waste and the
destabilisation of sludge from wastewater treatment plants. The paper will also discuss alternative systems
such as wet- and dry-composting toilets that will reduce the quantity of domestic wastewater taken to
treatment plants.

The nature of sewage sludge

U

Sewage sludge or biosolids is an end product from sewage treatment. The raw sewage, which includes
industrial wastes, is most commonly directed to sewage treatment plants, where all the solids are removed
from the water. The amount of sewage sludge produced per capita in Europe was calculated as being
800kg or 25-40kg dry matter per year. This amount is being calculated without the industrially produced
wastes (Kofoed, 1984). The sludge after the dewatering process is often composted for further treatment.
This will render the sludge more inert and less toxic to the environment. It is a method that has been
commonly used to stabilize sewage sludge and reduce pathogen concentrations. (Sidhu et al., 2000) The
dried product is used as compost in agriculture, horticulture, land reclamation forestry and parklands
(37%), disposed of at landfill sites (44%); incinerated (9%), disposed of into the sea (7%) or disposed of
to other outlets including onsite at the sewage works, lagoons, stockpiling; sacrificial land, sludge farms;
processed products and unrecorded outlets (3%) (Neuman & Bowden, 1989).

The chemical and biological composition of sewage sludge is unpredictable and usually contains
pathogens, heavy metals and other chemicals from industry and agriculture that may be harmful to human
beings. Goldstein et al. (1988) studied the pathogen levels in sludge products that are commercially
available in the U.S.A. All samples tested contained indicator microorganisms and pathogens such as
Salmonella and Yersinia. The sludge products that were air-dried exhibited generally a lower
concentration of enteric bacteria than the composted sludge products. These findings were confirmed by a
study carried out by Gibbs et al. (1997) where the pathogens decreased at first steadily during summer,
when the temperature was high. But when the temperature started to fall and the rainfall commenced the
pathogenic microbes started to regenerate, as there was moisture available (Gibbs et al. 1997).

The practice of sewage sludge application for soil amendment has many advantages. It has been found to
be a good soil conditioner in areas where the soil has been depleted of nutrients or it’s water holding
capacity has decreased (Hall & Coker, 1982). It is essential however to consider the toxicity and
pathogenicity of the product towards humans, animals and plants. It is therefore only with caution that the
sludge should be utilized in agriculture (Bortlisz & Malz, 1982). If sewage sludge is used on agriculture
then there has to be special consideration given to the infections and other health problems it may cause to
animals and plants due to the pathogens and toxic substances that may be contained within. The health
hazards need to be evaluated, as the treatment that is given to the sludge will in turn represent its hygienic
quality (Kofoed, 1984).

Vermicomposting
U

Vermicomposting is the process by which organic materials are converted into soil conditioners with the
aid of earthworms. In this process worms are utilised to break down the organic materials. The advantages
for using Vermicomposting as a means to process sewage sludge over conventional composting are that
the product is more homogenous, rich in plant nutrients, the levels of contaminants are reduced and the
resulting vermicompost appears to hold more nutrients over a longer period of time. It also greatly
increases the water holding capacity of the soil (Appelhof, 1997).
Water Science and Technology , 2003,(48),(11/12),125-132

Earthworms are often utilised in organic waste management. However, not every worm species is suitable
for this task. Some earthworms such as Lumbricus terrestris (also known as night crawlers) that are wide
spread in Europe and North America need large amounts of soil to burrow in. They are also more often
associated with the aeration of the soil and are not a suitable type for composting. Furthermore, they do
not like temperatures that exceed 10°C and if their surrounds are disturbed by digging and other activities
(Appelhof, 1997). The most commonly utilized earthworm species in waste management are Eisenia
fetida, Eisenia andrei, Lumbricus rubellus, Perionyx excavatus and Eudrilus eugeniae. E.fetida appears to
be the most suitable species for the vermicomposting of sludges as it has the highest resistance to toxic
substances, a rapid composter with a reasonable reproduction rate.

The worms ingest organic matter, fungi, protozoa, algae, nematodes and bacteria, which then passes
through the digestive tract. The majority of the bacteria and organic matter pass through undigested
(although the organic matter has been ground into smaller particles). This then forms the casting along
with metabolite wastes such as ammonium, urea and proteins. The worms also secrete a mucus of
polysaccharides, proteins and other nitrogenous compounds from their body. Through the action of
ingesting and excreting food, worms create “burrows” in the material that in turn increases the available
surface area and allows aeration in conjunction with the aeration already supplied by mixing the biosolids
with the chipped green waste.

Earthworms are useful for the accessibility of plant nutrients in the soil. They can be utilized for the
bioconversion of nitrogen (N). Hand et al. (1988) found that E. fetida produced favourable conditions for
nitrification of cow slurry. They ingested N and excreted it in the mineral form as ammonium and muco-
proteins. The ammonium in the soil is then further converted to nitrate. This was also confirmed by Bansal
and Kapoor (2000) who found that vermicomposting of crop residues and cattle dung significantly
reduced the carbon (C) to N ratio and hence increase the mineral form of N after a period of 90 days.

In vermicomposting microbial decomposition occurs simultaneously. It is therefore important to

determine the correct ratio of C to N ratio to cater to both the earthworms and the microbe’s needs. The C
and N ratio in biosolids and their effect on vermicomposting were investigated by Ndegwa and Thompson
(2000). It was found that different worms have different C to N ratio needs. The highest reduction in
volatile solids was achieved at a C to N ratio of 25. The product was found to have a near neutral pH and
had the greatest amount of reduction of soluble N and soluble P (phosphate).

The soil quality in agriculture has always been important and the direct application of sludge has been
common practice in many countries to amend the decline in soil fertility. The possibility of direct
application of biosolids in conjunction with vermicomposting for sludge stabilization was investigated in
Europe. Aerobic and anaerobic sludges were spread over the soil surface containing earthworms. The
mineralisation and humification of organic matter was dependent on the sludge mixture. With an increase
in the percentage of anaerobic sludge the number of E. fetida decreased proportionally as they chose the
soil. This indicates that the anaerobic sludge has adverse effects on the earthworms. Furthermore, when
the amount of aerobic sludge was higher than 50% the soil microbial activity increased (Masciandro et al.,
2000).

Most methods used for the elimination of pathogens were found to be only partially effective to minimise
harmful microorganisms. In vermicomposting fungi and bacteria have been known to be an important
food source for earthworms. E. fetida has been known to survive on a range of pure fungal cultures and
gain weight. Some antibiotic producing fungi such as Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp. and Penicillinum
spp. have been found to be detrimental to some species of earthworms. Bacteria of the same species may
affect different earthworm species in different ways. Some earthworms will be able to ingest one species
Water Science and Technology , 2003,(48),(11/12),125-132
of bacteria without being affected by it. However, to another earthworm species the ingestion of the same
bacterial species can be detrimental. Some microorganisms will become activated after being ingested by
earthworms (Doube & Brown, 1998). The removal of pathogens, faecal coliforms, Salmonella spp.,
enteric viruses and helminth ova from biosolids appeared to be much more rapid when the sludge was
processed by E. fetida. All of the indicator pathogens such as E. coli and Salmonellae were sufficiently
reduced in numbers compared to the control which showed only a slight reduction of pathogens (Eastman
et al., 2001; Eastman, 2000). The vermicomposting process may not remove toxic substances but it can in
some instances change the chemical make up of the sewage sludge. However, if the biosolids are highly
toxic then the earthworms will be adversely affected. The weight and reproduction rate will decrease or
the earthworms will migrate to a more favourable environment if high amounts of heavy metals or toxins
are present.

Applications of Vermicomposting

1. For Urban wastewater treatment - Sludge stabilisation

U

Vermicomposting can be utilised for stabilisation of sludge from wastewater treatment plant. This will
reduce the amount of sludge that ends up in landfills and the finished product can be safely used as a soil
conditioner. One Australian company that has made good use of these facts is Vermitech. Their large scale
operation has converted sewage sludge into an end product that is safe for agricultural use (McCarthy,
2002). The system is a continuous-flow system of raised cages that processes over 50 tonnes of waste per
day (Fig 1.). The waste contains typically sewage sludge, feedlot wastes and green wastes that are all
mixed together and are being processed by composting worms. Field trials have shown that the resulting
vermicast known as BioVerm will increase the quality and yield of crops, while it also acts as a disease
suppressant to the crop plants. Furthermore, the vermcastings that result from this method have been
found to comply with grade A standards for sludge stabilisation. The typical analysis of the vermicast
reveals that pathogens such as enteric viruses, parasite eggs and bacteria such as E. coli have been reduced
to safe levels for use in the garden (Lozof, 2002).

The main advantages of the large scale vermicomposting are 1) it is a pollution free process 2) it produces
no odour or leachate 3) it is cost competitive; 4) capable of being installed within the grounds of a
treatment plant eliminating transport of raw sludge 5) could be used to process other organic wastes
generated in the region 6) produces a higher value end product into an unsaturated, expanding market

Fig 1. Raised Cage Design of Vermitech

2. For rural waste water treatment - Vermifiltration

U

For rural areas or for a small community dwelling vermicomposting can be effectively used to treat the
wastewater and other organic waste through the process of vermifiltration. This system treat grey- and
Water Science and Technology , 2003,(48),(11/12),125-132
black-water as well as the toilet waste and the kitchen wastes. This system has a composting storage tank
from which the effluent goes into a second tank to which the grey-water is directed. In this tank the
aeration of the effluent occurs. The effluent then goes to an irrigation storage tank, where it is treated with
chlorine and then mixed with rainwater to improve the water quality. From this storage tank the effluent is
pumped through a reed bed and constructed wetlands for further treatment, after which it can be safely
used for subsurface irrigation (Fig 2.). However, this system is only useful if there is sufficient space for
the wetland treatment system.

Fig 2. Dowmus Biolytic Filter Schematic representation

A new improved vermifiltration system has therefore been developed. This system does not need a
constructed wetland and works with 3 filter layers, as can be seen in figure 3. It is designed for houses in
suburbs and only needs a fraction of the space required by the older system (Mobbs, 1998).

Fig. 3. Cross section of the Vermifiltration System

3. Waste treatment for individual house - Vermicomposting Toilets

U

In small communities it is not financially viable to have sewage treatment plants, as the implementation
and running cost would outweigh the advantages of the treatment plants. An alternative treatment system
that would greatly reduce water consumption and does not need much technical know how to utilize
would be the vermicomposting toilet. The toilet contains composting worms such as E. fetida and
beneficial microbes that will convert the waste into vermicastings. There are two types of
vermicomposting toilets available, the wet-composting toilet and the dry composting toilet. Both are
closed systems and will therefore will not pollute the groundwater and the environment. In addition to
human excrements these toilets can deal with all the other organic wastes that are being produced, such as
kitchen scraps and paper wastes. Furthermore, the end product from these toilets known as vermicastings
can be utilized as soil additive.
Water Science and Technology , 2003,(48),(11/12),125-132

The dry composting toilet has the advantage that it does not require any water to flush and can therefore
be utilised in arid areas. The toilet is designed to be odourless. It has a built in extraction fan to eliminate
odours, as can be seen in fig 4. The Dowmus dry composting toilet is a continuous system (eg. The
composted materials can be emptied when they have composted down sufficiently, from the bottom of the
toilet) and the vessel in which the composting occurs will not be changed over.

Fig 4: Dowmus dry composting toilet

There are other systems available on the market today such as the Vermicom composting toilet designed
by Barefoot engineering. These systems are batch systems, which means, when a chamber is full, the next
chamber will be utilised for deposits while the full chamber is left to compost down with the help of
worms. The Vermicom is small, portable and inexpensive compared with most other systems. It works on
the same principles as the Dowmus dry composting toilet. They are both fitted with a low voltage exhaust
fan that circulates the air and removes odours. The fan can run on mains, photovoltaic or battery power
and is therefore an ideal system for use in remote areas.

At present vermicomposting toilets have been approved in principle by the health authorities. However,
the approval is dependant on the local council and varies on the guidelines of toilet design. In assessing
the ecological sustainability of nutrient and hydraulic loading rates with on-site effluent treatment
systems, Gardner et al. (1997) explained that for septic tank systems allotment sizes of up to 1 hectare
maybe required for a single household. However, for transpiration and aerobic treatment systems the area
could be considerably less with up to 4,000 square metres being required. Currently, septic tank systems
are in use on lot sizes as small as 600 square metres.

Conclusion

If the process of composting and Vermicomposting is combined for the treatment of biosolids, (activated
sewage sludge) the resulting product is of better quality and the stabilization time is shortened. It is more
consistent (homogenous); more stable and has a lesser impact on the environment. Because of the
substantial reduction is pathogens the end product is safer for disposal to land than the sludge compost.
Vermicomposting will make the nutrients more readily available to plants, as it can convert them into
mineral form. Therefore it would be a good treatment for biosolids.

The vermicomposting system can be designed to meet different requirements such as

1. Single household - all organic waste to vermicomposting toilet-compost to garden
2. Group dwellings - all organic waste and greywater to vermifiltration unit, compost and treated effluent
to community garden
Water Science and Technology , 2003,(48),(11/12),125-132
3. Cities -Organic waste and Sludge treatment by municipal scale vermicomposting

Sustainability can be achieved through the accelerated cycling of nutrients though a closed cycle whereby
waste products are put to productive end use. Vermicomposting can therefore be a very effective and
environmentally sound method for organic waste management.

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