Trohep 5 DatrlsSclence and Engineering A488 2008) 529-539 ‘wwalevircomfocstenesa Microstructure and mechanical properties of pearlitic gray cast iron L. Collini®*, G. Nicoletto*, R. Konetna> * Deparment of daria ginering, Univer of arma, Par, Hay Deparment of Merial Eagincering, Universi of lina, Zilina, lovato Resuved 3 May 2007; civ in cevised form 14 November 2007; scepted 19 November 2007 Abstract -Mechanical properties of structural materials strongly depend on their micresteuctue, The aim ofthis work, which essentially hasan experiment characte, isto correlate microstructure and mechanical properties of pealtc gray east ieoa, Because ofthe industrial interest behind to this work, the material under study is extracted from identical sand-cast parts produced by three differen foundries. Laboratory tests show that mechanical properties, a6 tensile and fatigue strength, of gray cas iron f the same grade vary from foundry to foundry. A noticeable statisteal data seater is found also, depending onthe location of the castings from which the specimens are machined, The cause of this hchaviour is ascribed tothe Jnhamogeneity that characterizes the gray eat iron microstructure. Metllographic sections are observed to quantitatively measure the relevant ricrostructural parameters, as graphite Iamellas moqpbology, evtexic cell size and inclusions content. Results ae correlated to the measured ‘echanieal properties: reduced graphite conten ineveases the tensile andthe fatigue strength, bo fine eutectie eas structure and high eutectic phosphide percentage improve che fatigue properties. (© 2007 ElseviorBLV, Al rights reserved Kepwordes Gray cst ion; Foundry Mechanical propenies Fatigue suergth; Micosuct 1. Introduetion Gray cast iron (GCIs traditionally chosen in many industrial applications because of its Mexibility of use, good eastability, Tow-cost (20-40% less than steel) and wide range of achiev- able mechanical properties. The structure of GCI depends on ‘chemical composition before the casting process, inoculants and ‘cooling conditions [1-3). Its chemical composition must be selected to satisfy three basic structural requirements, i.e, shape and distribution of ‘sraphite, the carbide-free structure nd the required matrix. Usu- ally, pearlitic GCLis used when high modulus of elasticity, good wearresistance and good finishing surface are required. Ifa good machinability, thermal shock resistance, high internal damping ‘capacity and ability (0 be cast in thin sections are required, however a ferritic matrix in gray cast iron is preferred [4] ‘The microstructure of GCTis characterized by graphite lamel- las dispersed into the ferrous matrix. Foundry practice can influence nucleation and growth of graphite flakes, so that size * Coresponding autor Te: +39 0521 908892; fax: 1390521 90570. Binail address weacoli @unipei (Cll). 0p21-5093/$—see font mater © 2007 Elsevier B.V, Al ight seve ho10.10%64jnsea.2007.11.070, and type enhance the desired properties. The amount of graphite and size, morphology and distibution of graphite lamellas are critical in determining the mechanical behaviour of GCI [5-1]. Graphite in lamellar form is one of seven types (shapes or forms) of graphite established in specific standard, such as [8]. Lamel- lar graphite is then subsivided into five types (patterns), which are designated by the letters A through E. Type A lamellar _rapite presents random orientation and is preferred for most, applications As aresultsof its heterogeneous microstructure, GCI exhibits «non-linear mechanical behaviour because ofthe formation of ‘multiple micro-cracks at the lamellas tips even at low tensile siresses: the complex behaviour of GCI with respect to notch, sensitivity and in both tensile and fatigue testing are not well, understood [9-11]. This work presents the results of a mechanical and microstructural characterization performed in laboratory on specimens directly extracted from industrial castings made of pearlitic GCI, and produced by three different foundries, in the following designed as foundries A~C. ‘The castings present « complex intemal shape with geomet- sical notches, which are potential zones of in-service failures. Many works in the literature demonstrate that fracture andFig 1 Metallogrepie section of EN-CIL-00 from foundry A, ete Nil 3 fatigue properties of GCI are lary independent from the notch radius, see for example [12,13]. The complex microstructure plays a key role on the tensile strength of GCI. ‘The aim of the study is to evaluate the variability of tensile and fatigue strength of castings, in dependence of microstructure and, therefore, of foundry practice. An extensive metallographic analysis is performed to quantify the parameters associated (0 graphite and matrix morphology and (o other mierostruetural features of GCI. Results are correlated with mechanical prop- erties of GCI from tensile tests, smooth specimen fatigue tests and notch crack propagation tests. 2. Mechanical properties of GCI 2.1. EN-GIL 300 gray cast iron ‘The material under examination is a lamellar gray cast iron with fully pearlitic matrix of GIL 300 grade (Le. minimum ten- sile ultimate strength 300MPa) according to Ref. (14). Peatite, characterized by high strength and hardness, is a product of ‘eutectoid transformation and itis made up of alternate lamellar planes of ferrite and cementite. Feerite, which has low strength and high ductility, is the Fe phase with low carbon content; its, formation is favored by graphitizing elements such as Si or by low cooling rates, characteristic of thick cast walls. Cementite is a hard and brittle intermetallic Fe-C compound, whose for- ‘mation is favored in zones of castings characterized by high ‘cooling rates such as thin-wall sections, corners, or a the exter- nal surfaces. Properties of pearlite strongly depend on spacing between ferrie-cementite planes: the mechanical strength of ppearlte increases when the interlamellar spacing decreases, for 1. Colin et a. / Materials Science and Engineering A 488 (208) 529-538 ‘Specimen #1 ‘Specimen #2 ‘Specimen # Senha A Fig 2, Twospecimens are machined rom each east pa example by fac cooling [4.5]. A typical peatic microstructure of GCT is shown inthe micrograph of Fig. Chemical compositions of GCls produced by foundries AC aye reported in Table I. They slighty diffe fom each other in C, Si, Ma, B, § and Cr content, but all elemental contents axe within the range prescribed by the standard (14) The equivalent carbon (F.C.) content is close forthe three material, varying fom 3.815% for cas ion A to 3.850% for cast iron By all GCIs are hypocutectic. 2.2, Static tensile behaviour Uniaxial tensile tests have been conducted on a MTS servo- hydraulic machine on dogbone specimens of 6mm diameter in the minimum section, at strain rate of O.8mmimin and at room temperature. About 20 specimens per foundry have been ‘machined from castings. In Fig. 2 the position of specimens extraction from castings is shown; the local wall thickness was 24mm, Experimental data were then statistically elaborated applying the Weibull-type distribution to readily compare the mean values ‘and the scatter of data points forthe three foundries, The Weibull 1.0;thisindicates that the material tends to yield or rupture with higher probability for every unit increase ia applied tension. The scale parameter ‘Tes Paraseces of Wau near regressions in the farm, tests on gray exsticens from foundeies A-C elu) of ene ronéy Peer iz Yaa mies soon oa 2 tees Mise ust osm é Benz ios a0 O3sT2 A may 113208 3 toimaesergh fy ang8 sate c moor 133 use A nam sas 0609 2 icmahiase 1618S _a8s7 e sae sts A am 62303899 2 Momgadonwsitee OS osao c : tec ‘Soe sae Bevthe teu ford on bande », computed using the point the line intersects the ¥ axis in .&-¥, measures the spread inthe distribution of data. Fig. 3(@) illustrates the distribution of yield strength Rya2. ata highly differ from one foundry to the other: foundry A shows the highest values of yield strength and least dispersed data. Weibull distributions of ultimate strength Rey of foundries, ‘A-Care shown in Fig, 3(b); the same considerations hold as for the yield strength ‘The modulus of elasticity E is calculated as the slope of tangent at the origin of the stress-strain curve. Experimental data and statistical elaboration of elastie modalus are shovra in Fig. 3(¢): GCI from foundry B shows the highest , while GCL from foundry A shows the smallest standard deviation of da, Elongation to failure Ar% is shown in Fig. 3(¢): all GCIs exhibit a brittle behaviour becanse mean values are lower than 19; cast iron extracted from foundry B castings has the highest ductility and the lowest data scatter. 2.3. Fatigue sirengih Fatigue strength of GCTis of interest when mechanical com- ponents are subjected to cyclic loads, This is the case of the industrial application ofthe present castings Fatigue design of GCI castings is actually conducted consid- ering the FE-calculated stress concentrations acting at internal notches and filets and applying methodologies as prooosed in Ref, [15], adopting material data from literature and stan- dard. To get a comprehensive set of data on GIL-300 used for these castings, rotary bending fatigue test at R= —I were con- ducted in the laboratory on smooth specimens extracted from the castings. The fatigue test machine operates at frequency of ‘50 zon the scheme of cantilever beam; fatigne specimens have hourglass shape with a diameter of 6mm at the minimum sec~ tion. The adopted test methodology is taken from a Japanese standard [16] that recommends the use of @ minimizing eight specimens for the finite life S/N curve and of six specimens for the determination of the fatigue limit with the staircase method ‘at 50% probability [17]. Fatigue tests were interrupted at 107 cycles. Experimental fatigue curves of the three GCIs AC are ‘depicted in Fig 4. Fatigue data are ploted in semi-logarithmic scale and curves in finite lie region are obtained as interpola tion of failure data points by a power law of the form S, = kV)? where 5; is the stress ampliude, Ny the number of cycles to failure and & and b are the fitting coefficients. Results of theColin et a / Materials Scence and Bxglncering A 485 (208) 329-539 a? T T © Foundy [8 Feunary ¥ Foundye ae Founay A Foray B «oe Ine) @t§pee © Foundy Fone Ew Founaye 62. 63~=C«SASSCSSC* nee) Fig 3. Weta dsibutin of (ye strength, (6) ukimate steng linear earessons are reported in Table 3. interpolations are foundry A: k= 1624, b= —0.301; foundry B: k= 1817, b=—0.281; foundey C: £= 695, b= —0.184. SIN curves for all foundries show high data scatter. This, ‘was expected because of the complexity of GCT microstructure when compared to other metallic materials like cast steel or cast aluminum alloys. GCIs produced by foundries B and C present a similar behaviour in the finite life region, while foundry A shows 2 Tower fatigue performance. On the other hand, the fatigue limit 180 on rem rey ey © Founda = = Foundry ~] é Foundry £ : = 100 o Zs Ss 4 ° eA OF Number of eyees to fre Fig. 4. Faia SIM carves of GCIs fom fonndsy AC. ‘458 400 405 470 475 480 485 490 12 30 08 08 04 02 0 tn) "(laste mods and (4) elongation to failr of GCIs fom founties A-C. Parumetss of (Sy) at 10? eycles is the same for foundry A and B, while GCL of foundry C has a fatigue limit about 60% higher than A and B, soe Table 2. ‘Two aspects can be noticed: (i) the fatigue limits are lower than expected, because the standard prescription (14), on Sw to Ry ratio is 0.4 while from the current materials is A: 0.15, B: 0.16, C: 0.27 and (i) the fatigue strength of the three cast irons rank in opposite order with respect to the tensile strength values—A, B (—7%) and C (—15%). This fact, which ean be explained only analyzing the fatigue process in the light of each peculiar GCI microstructare, demonstrates the unsatisfactory predictability of GCI fatigue properties from tensile strength data, 24, Threshold fatigue crack growth Fatigue crack growth tests have been conducted on the three GCT mierostructures with the aim to determine the threshold value AKy of the stress intensity factor (SIF), which is asso ciated to conditions of incipient crack arrest. The AK value ‘of a material is of interest when a fracture mechanics approach is used in the design to predict the in-service fatigue limit of a cracked component. The hypothesis of the presence of a crack initiated after the few first load cycles atthe inner sharp notches of castings is appropriate, because the tensile strength of GCI is 2-3 times smaller than the local peak stress determined via1 Colin es a / Materials Sconce and Engacering A 488 (2008) 529-539 533 on 25 Fig. 5. Geometry of Vnochod epccimen eed in exact ast, diansions hein ma. clastic FE analysis [15]. Under appropriate conditions a erack thar develops at a severe notch ean arrest [15] ‘No experimental data on fatigue crack resistance were avail- ale for the specific material under study, and very few data can be found in literature. Some experimental results related to GCI ‘with various ferrite-to-pearlite ratios in the matrix tested at dif- ferent R-ratio are reported by Bulloch (18). He puts in evidence that when subjected to eyelie loading, de pearlitic matrix struc ture promotes the micro-crack initiation at lower stress intensity factor than the ferrtic one. In Refs. [19,20] some experimen tal data show a clear effect of stress ratio on the fatigue crack behaviour of GCI atthe threshold regime. ‘Therefore, ad-hoc tests appeared necessary because fatigue crack resistance in GCI is highly influenced by the actual ‘araphite morphology. ‘Tests have been conducted in laboratory at room tempera~ ture on a 1OKN AMSLER vibrophore operating at frequency of, 140 Hz and at load ratio R= —1. The specimen geometry used in the testis shown in Fig. 5; itis a lateral 60° V-notched flat spec- imen, machined from 12mm diameter round bars, with almost zero radius at notch root. All specimens have been pre-cracked in fatigue. ‘The adopted test methodology is of AK-decreasing type, ie. the machine is forced to follow a stepped force shedding pro- ccdure, as reported in Ref. [21]. The crack length is monitored by the acquisition of the vibrophore frequency drop caused by the variation of compliance in the specimen during the test. The ‘method has an estimated sensitivity of approximately 0.1 mm variation of crack length. The load shedding is interrupted when ‘no appreciable crack propagation is detected, typically after 1 rillion of cycles, ie. when the crack growth race falls below 10-7 mnveyele. (90 5 »~™ ms rary mm Fase Saas Breve 280 }- Sraraye | 250 Sronive | moe ae) 4 & = 21s £ x0 Aa é seo 4 seo 4 sol 4j 2» 4 a +l ean ls ven ean ote srengh 7 @ fmm Foray fmm Fou col Steers J Sree Seance Sra J = o got a4 4 s g 3 of i é J ¢ aoe 4 ab al woh 4 ° ° Fatgueinat “esi SI ig 6, Compsisonteoween mechanical popes of GCs from founds A-C: (a) mean yield stuengh, (8) mean ukimat tenth (6) fadgue Hit and (4) ehrestold ses intensity Taco lesa Colin eat. / Materials Scence and Exgncerng A 488 (2008) 529-539 Results ofthe threshold fatigue crack growth tests are sum= smacized in Table 2 and showed inthe histogram of Fig. 6, where tensile and fatigue strengths are also shown. Once more, the ranking order of GCls from the three foundries is modified com pared with the tensile and fatigue strength rankings; GCI from foundry B shows the highest AK, value, GCI from foundry C theminimum Ay difference from foundries B and Cis consid- erable. The experimental results of mechanical testing program show that: () strong differences exist in the mechanical proper- ties ofthe analyzed GCI castings, which are nominally the same, Gia uniform trend inthe performance is not found and (i) the tensile test do not correlate with fatigue and crack propagation resistance of GCL. Section 3 reports the metallographic analysis conducted on the materials to explain their behaviour. 3. Metallographie analysis 3.1. Matrix structure and graphite morphology ‘The structure of GCI depends on chemical composition and, especially, on cooling conditions [4,5]. The shape and dimen- sion of graphite lamellas in the matrix are critical because they strongly influence the static and dynamic strength of GCI, as can be considered actual natural notches and cracks. The aim of the following analysis is the quantitative study of some ‘microstructural parameters that could be correlated with the (atigue and crack propagation) strength ofthe GCI under exam- inadion. In particular the metallographic analysis is aimed at ‘quantifying: ‘© the content of pearlite in the mateix: ‘© the content and morphology of graphite; ‘¢ the dimension of eutectic cells (average diameter); ‘¢ the content and distribution of eutectic phosphide in the microstructure Images of metallographic seetions taken from the specimens used in fatigue tests were acquired with an optical microscope and analyzed in detail to quantify the relevant microstructural features in conjunction with the experimental mechanical char- acterization reported in Section 2, Metallographic structural analysis has been focused on the evaluation of micro- and macrostructure of GCI. ‘The content of pearite in the microstructure was evaluated according to Ref. (8), after etching the polished samples with 83Ge nitric acid for 5s, All the castings presented a fully pearlitic ‘matrix with the typical structure already shown in Fig. 1. The peatlite had a lamellar structure with characteristic spacing of ferrite-cementite planes from 1.3 to 1.6 um in the central part of castings and from 0.8 to 1.3 um near the casting surface of the three GCIs A-C. ‘The characterization of graphite was obtained by digital image analysis with commercial software, Measurements were conducted on three parameters related to the lamellar graphite ‘morphology: percentage of graphite i the matrix (Yi) average ‘major axis (MA) in pars taken ftom relatively thin (4-mmn) and thick (18-26 am) wall dhickness, and average shape factor (SF). ‘The shape factoris defined as SF =4zrA/p* where A isthe single lamella area and p its perimeter; SF ranges between 0 for a line and 1 in the case of perfect circle. Inall castings the distribution of graphite lamellas was mainly of type D, which is characterized by interdendritic segregation and random orientation, with a minor part of type A, which corresponds to 2 uniform and random orientation [4,8]. Mea- surements were conducted on three images per microstructure, with about 400-600 objects ie. lamellas, per image. The length of graphite lamellas ranges from 0.140 to 0.240:mm and, less Frequently, from 0.100 0 0.160 mm. Morphology of graphite is the same, but in parts with reduced thickness the average length of lamellas is locally smaller than the corresponding value in bigger parts ofthe casting, as indicated by the results in Table 2, ‘This is in accordance with [11], where GCI plates of differ- ent thickness were studied. Differences in length of lamellas are not constant, mean values differ by 12%, 26% and 43% in microstructures of foundry A~C, respectively. This indicates a strong variability of microstructural parameters in GCI not only from casting to casting but also within the same casting, Its rea sonable fo suppose that mechanical properties are heterogeneous also. Table 2 repons the other results of the analysis: graphite percentage, which is around 15-18%, and shape factor, In con- clusion, microstructure of foundry A has the greatest content of graphite and presents short and shaep lamellas, while lamellas in microstructures B, which is similar to microstructure C, are longer and with higher shape factor (i. less clongated). 3.2. Macrostructure and eutectic cells Although the contol of primary structure is not required by the standard (8], the analysis of microstructural features such as dimension of dendrites of primary austenite and eutectic cells size, can be useful to explain the mechanical propenies of GCT [9]. Eutectic cells (BCs) are micro-cells with chemical com- position prinipally eutectic, in which itis usually posible to observe a graphite branched skeleton [5,7,22,23]. The GCIs of this study ae bypoeuteetic (carbon equivalent is ~0:86% in all castings); the primary crystallization is characterized by forma- tion of austenite dendrites, while the formation of ECs (during the eutectic reaction there isthe continuous and simulaneous creation of graphite and austenite phases) ean only take place in the “free space” left by the primary phase. EC diameter inl ences the mectianical properties of the cast iron: the higher the amount of cells per unit votume the higher isthe tensile strength Overheating and time of exposure to high temperature reduce the number of solidification nuclei (and consequentially of the ‘number of eutectic cells, while inoeulants as sulphur or eon based silicate produce the opposite effect 3,4]. ECs have always teen emphasized in relationship with mechanical properties in cast ron, sce for example [11] but it was also shown in Re. 7] that the effect ofthe primary structure may exceed that af ECs sine, “The evaluation of GCI macrostructures of castings A, Band C was focused on identification of ECs and determination of theit average size, GCI structure was inthis ease revealed by colorE.Coli eat / Materials Science an Engineering A488 (2008) 29-539 535 Fig. 7. Coloretching showing eutectic cells GCI—foundry A. Echedsodiame pete etching with sodium picrate as indicatedin Ref. 6,24]. A typical color etched pearlitic structure is shown in Fig. 7. ECs show an approximately circular shape with radial graphite lamellasinside ‘a network (biue in the picture) which delimitates the eutectic calls. The measured average EC size in GCI microstructure pro- duced by foundries A~C is reported in Table 2. Microstructures have very different EC sizes, going from 0.6mm (GCI C) 10 about 1 mm (GCLA). 3.3, Eutectic phosphide Grayiron for sandeastings contains phosphorus usually from (0510 1% or mote, depending ofthe carbon content. The solidi- fication process of cast iron doesnot terminate withthe eutectic reaction because a ternary eutectic phosphide develops accord- ing tothe system Fe-FesC-FosP atthe end of eutectic reaction [4]. Eutectic phosphide (EP), also called steadite, solidifies as the final par of the melt tthe grain boundavies, Usually present in cast iron micrastructures, steadite isa compound containing 10.2% of phosphorus and 89.8% of iron, and is the last element to solidify because is liquidus temperature is lower than that of the ferrous matrix. This causes the formation of micro-porosties ) P Baiceti,L Colin, Riv, Eng Frac. Mech 4 (2007) 538-548, [16] Standard Matha of Stasis! Faigue Testing. 1SME S002, 198 117) Botwvka 0. NicletoG, Kunz L.Palee P,Chlupoya M. 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