Proceedings of the ASME 2010 International Mechanical Engineering Congress & Exposition
IMECE2010
November 12-18, 2010, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Characterization of PIV Seed Particles
for Flow in Porous Media
Vishal A. Patil
Mechanical Engineering
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon, USA 97331
Abstract
The ability to perform particle image velocimetry (PIV)
in porous media presents many challenges in order to
minimize the inherent errors in the process. Index of
refraction matching is one method to visualize the entire
region of interest. One important question is the
available signal to noise ratio when using an index of
refraction technique that may have small differences of
index between the liquid and solid phases. Scattering
that will occur at the phase interfaces are enhanced as
the index mismatch increases. Consequently the highest
intensity seed scattering is desired along with reduction
of unwanted interface scattering. This paper examines
four seed types: silver coated hollow glass spheres,
polystyrene spheres, dyed polystyrene spheres, and
fluorescent filled polystyrene spheres and the scattering
power of each is measured in a porous media
environment. It is found that the silver coated spheres
coupled with the use of P polarized light provides the
best scattering intensity coupled with low noise
background. Also seed size required, based on Stokes
number criterion, to follow inertial flows in porous
media is presented.
Introduction
Many engineering processes employ porous media
flows, such as gas adsorption, combustion, filtration and
catalytic reactors. Books by Bear [1] and Scheidegger
[2] are excellent resources describing these flows in
detail. Experimentally, porous flows are a challenge to
study due to the difficulty of interrogation access, the
typical range of flow passage scales and the inherent
three dimensional nature of the flow, among other
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IMECE2010-
James A. Liburdy
Mechanical Engineering
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon, USA 97331
difficulties. Optical based techniques such as PIV [3 - 5],
PTV [6 - 10], LIF [11 - 14] and LDA [15, 16] have been
used to study the transport properties in porous media.
Refractive index matching methods (RIM) are typically
employed to make the bed transmissive to the optical
probe and light sheet. Other methods used to study
porous media flows are positron emission tomography
[17] and magnetic resonance imaging [18 - 20]. These
methods can provide high quality three-dimensional
information, but generally represent a very large
investment in the equipment.
The design of a porous media test facility is also
nontrivial. For instance, packing of the media imposes
flow conditions that affect the global flow characteristics
like pressure drop and dispersion [21, 22]. Also, the test
bed dimensions relative to the characteristic pore size is
important in eliminating wall effects. Empirical studies
show that a bed diameter of approximately ten bead
diameters is needed to effectively reduce wall effects in
studies using spherical beads to form the porous media
[23]. This minimum bed diameter requirement implies
that the optical access needs to be able to probe through
a significant number of fluid/solid interfaces in the
imaging process. Consequently a slight mismatch in the
solid and liquid phase refractive indices can result in
significant loss of spatial resolution and signal intensity
caused by refraction and scattering. Also, the larger the
number of interfaces the greater the potential for
unwanted scattering sights, or glare, due to imperfection.
The choice of seed particles is typically very important
in either PIV or PTV [24, 25]. The goals include
 selecting seed size appropriate to follow the flow
features, requiring smaller sized seeds while providing
enough scattered power, and an optimal image size to
minimize errors such as peak locking, and to achieve
accurate displacement peak estimates [26]. Seed
detection depends on their light scattering ability which
generally increases with seed diameter. The scattered
intensity from seed at 900 decreases with a decrease in
the ratio of refractive index of seed to that of fluid
medium. Consequently, seed scattering power is
expected to be low in refractive index matching liquid
used in porous media studies. Seeds with high scattering
power are also desirable to compensate for the
transmission loss at interfaces and to allow velocimetry
measurement at high f numbers. The high f number
constraint are necessary to help satisfy the 2-3 pixel
criterion for seed imaging at low magnification, as is
generally used to perform PIV on macrosystems [26].
Working with high f number also helps to reduce errors
introduced due to lens aberrations [26].
Scattering at solid liquid interfaces within an
illumination light sheet has been observed previously in
porous media studies [6, 13] which prohibits obtaining
near wall velocity measurements. Fluorescent seeds
have been used in the past to eliminate the scattered light
at interfaces [13] to allow filtering of the light source.
Their use can be problematic in porous media because
index matching is wavelength dependent and the
emission wavelength will differ from the excitation
wavelength making it impossible to match the indices of
the liquid and solid phases for both incident and emitted
light. The relatively small shift of index can indeed
provide significant errors [27].
The goal of the present study is to provide quantitative
insight into the selection of seed particles used to study
flow in a porous media where high resolution in required
in very small pore size conditions. The seed selection
criteria examined here is based on the proper size
needed for imaging versus high fidelity flow
representation. Experiments are conducted with silver
coated hollow glass, polystyrene, dyed polystyrene and
fluorescent polystyrene seed types. The study also
demonstrates the use of polarization to effectively
eliminate the laser light scattered at interfaces. This
study will allow researchers to obtain an increased
signal to noise ratio for PIV measurements in porous
media.
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Background
The selection of seed particles to use as tracers for PIV is
premised on the ability to provide a high signal to noise
ratio and to faithfully follow the flow. Four different
seed types are investigated here, silver coated hollow
glass spheres, SHG, polystyrene spheres, PS, blue dyed
polystyrene spheres, BPS, and fluorescent filled
polystyrene spheres, FPS. The size parameter of the
 DS
seeds, , is taken to be sufficiently large to allow

the use of geometric optics to explain scattering results.
Here, DS is the seed diameter and is the wavelength of
the light source in the high refractive index medium.
The silver coated spheres provide high reflectance (it has
a high electrical conductance) and are insensitive to the
refractive index of the medium, polarization of light as
well as the incident angle of the light. The dyed
polystyrene may provide added scattering compared
with the un-dyed polystyrene due to the dye molecules
contributing to the total scattered light. This would
occur provided the absorption spectrum for the dye
results in very limited absorption near the light source
wavelength. The use of fluorescent dye filled spheres
can reduce noise by filtering the laser light from the
image by using a bandpass filter to select the emission
wavelength of the fluorescent dye. As stated earlier this
may lead to RIM errors, however.
The use of polarized light in a selected plan can provide
a reduction in noise and thereby increase the seed
particle image signal to noise ratio, provided the
scattered signal is not attenuated significantly. Using a
laser light source will typically result in vertically
polarized light in the light sheet. Based on the alignment
of the electric field the light is said to be S or P
polarized: S if the electric field is perpendicular to the
plane of incidence; P if the electric field is parallel to the
plan of incidence.
Reflectance, R, is dependent on the polarization of the
light and can be expressed in the Fresnel equation [28]
for S reflectance and P reflectance respectively:
2
 n cos i  nt cos t 
RS   i  (1a)
 ni cos i  nt cos t 
2
 n cos i  ni cos t 
RP   t  (1b)
 ni cos t  nt cos i 
 where n is the refractive index and  the corresponding
angle of incidence or reflectance with the subscript i for
incident light and t for transmitted light. Snell’s law
provides the relationship between incident and reflected
light angle for specified indices of refraction [28]. For
an air/glass interface (n for air is taken as 1 and for glass
as 1.5) the reflectance is shown in Fig. 1 versus incident
angle. The reduction in RP relative to RS at incident
angles between approximately 20 to 85 is apparent, with
the largest relative reduction near the Brewster angle of
approximately 55o. Scattering of smooth and clean
surfaces can be explained using diffraction theory [29].
Other influences on scattering may also occur, such as
particles and films adsorbed on surfaces and surface
damage sites likes pits and scratches. A smooth surface
implies that surface roughness is smaller when compared
to wavelength of light. Applying diffraction theory
shows that the intensity in first order diffraction is
proportional to the square root of the product of
reflectance at incidence angle and the reflectance at
position of that order [29] therefore the total reflectance
from a rough surface will be reduced using P polarized
light since its specular reflectance is reduced.
Consequently the use of P polarized light should provide
a higher signal to noise ratio for PIV and help to reduce
scattering interference, or glare, near a liquid/solid
interface to allow for better spatial resolution next to the
solid.
Experimental Setup
The experiments carried out in this study primarily
1
0.8
RP
RS
0.6
R
0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80
i
Figure 1. Reflectance R of an air-glass interface versus
incident angle, θi, for S and P polarized incident light.
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involve imaging of seed particles within a porous bed
using laser light illumination to identify improved seed
signal strength for four different seed types. The seed
particles selected are silver coated hollow glass (SHG),
polystyrene (PS), blue dyed polystyrene (BPS) and
orange fluorescent polystyrene from Invitrogen (FPS).
The excitation maximum for the FPS seeds is at 540 nm
and the emission maximum is at 559 nm. The size
distribution of the seeds was obtained using a coulter
counter, and the results are shown in Fig. 2. It should be
noted that the SHG size distribution is typically
underestimated using a coulter counter due to the
metallic coating since the counter measures the decrease
in electrical conductance when the particle passed across
an aperture. A correction factor was determined by
directly examining SHG seed particles using a
microscope. All of the seed types have a peak near 10
m, with the SHG seeds have a rather broad distribution
with most seeds between 8 and 14 m.
The signal from the seed particles was determined by
measuring the seed scattering power at 90o scattering
(imaging view was normal to the light sheet). The seeds
were placed in an aqueous solution of ammonium
thiocyante such that the index of refraction was 1.4695.
This was selected to match the index of refraction of
Pyrex, typically used as the solid phase in experimental
studies of porous media. A previous study examined the
effect of slight variations of index mismatch on the error
Figure 2. Size distribution of Polystyrene (PS), Blue
dyed Polystyrene (BPS), Fluorescent Polystyrene (FPS)
and Silver coated Hollow glass (SHG) seeds used in
present study.
 Cuvette Cuvette
seeds in NH4SCN seeds in NH4SCN
E

θ=45o
B

θ=45o
Laser

θ=90o
S polarized Laser P polarized

θ=0o
B E
light sheet light sheet

Light sheet Linear Light sheet Linear

optics polarizers optics polarizers
Translation Stage Translation Stage

Camera Camera
(a) (b)

Figure 3. Schematic of the experimental test set-up used to record images of seed 90o scattering power. (a) shows the position of
transmission axis of polarizers for study with perpendicular (S) polarized illumination light and (b) shows that for study with parallel
(P) polarized illumination light.

in particle position detection [27]. The experimental  M 

setup used is shown in Fig. 3 where the light sheet was   tan 1   (3)
either S polarized or P polarized.  2(1  M ) f # 

For the experiments used to study the scattering at solid
liquid interfaces, a porous bed of size 40 mm x 40 mm x
60 mm was used. The solid phase in the porous bed
consisted of 6mm Pyrex® beads with a liquid phase of
an aqueous solution of ammonium thiocyanate.
Data Analysis
The data collected for this study was primarily the
scattered light intensity to determine the signal strength
for the four seed particles studied in a porous media
environment. To determine the intensity a 16x16
interrogation window was placed around each seed
identified within an image. An example is shown in Fig.
4. The intensity is based on the maximum value within
the array and the scattering power of the seed was
determined using the local minimum intensity within the
array as:
I max  I min
S
I incident
where M is the system magnification and f# is the f
number in the imaging optics.
Results
The results are presented in three areas and discussed
relative to their importance to PIV application to flow in
porous media, (i) seed size selection criteria, (ii) seed
type selection to improve signal to noise and (iii) use of
polarization to improve signal to noise.
Seed Size Criteria
The primary criterion for seed sizing is that the seed
properly follow the flow and is large enough to scatter
(2)

where Iincident represents the intensity of the incident light

beam. It should be noted that all results of S are given as
ratios so the value of Iincident was not measured.

In addition the theoretical scattering power was

determined by integrating the scattering intensity over an
angular aperture of the imaging system. Estimates for
scattering intensities versus angle were based on Mie
scattering theory (using MiePlot program developed by
Philip Laven, http://www.philiplaven.com/mieplot.htm). Figure 4. Illustration of a 16x16 pixel image centered
The angular aperture,  was calculated as: around a seed using 90o scattering

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 light effectively. For flow in porous media the dynamic
range of the velocity may be rather large when
examining flows in the transient inertial range (pore
Reynolds numbers on the order of 100). This is because
the pore geometry (which may be highly variable in
randomly packed porous media) can have significantly
varying length scales. A Stokes number criterion is often
used to predict whether or not the seed particle will
accurately follow the flow. The Stokes number can be
defined as the ratio of particle response time to an
impulse or step function change in fluid velocity to the
flow time scale. Using the equation of motion for small
particles [30] and comparing particle inertia to the drag
forces, the particle response time can be written as:
f
t p  DS
12 
where Ds is the particle diameter, and f and  are the
fluid density and dynamic viscosity, respectively. The
characteristic time scale for flow in a porous media is
based on the pore average velocity, Upore and a
characteristic flow length, L. The pore velocity can be
obtained from the Darcy velocity, and the porosity as
UDarcy/. The associated flow length scale will vary with
Reynolds number. For instance at very low Reynolds
numbers the characteristic length can be taken as the 
bead size, or characteristic length of the solid phase, that
is L=DB. In the inertial flow regime the flow structure is
expected to change drastically. Flow eddies may occur
coupled with jetting of fluid through the pores. In a
random bed, flow jetting is expected to be coupled with
associated impingement onto the solid phase. In this
case, when Repore is greater than one, a viscous boundary
layer will develop in the impingement region on the
bead, B. Seed particles will need to accelerate rapidly
within this length scale. The thickness of this layer,
based on laminar impingement, can be expressed as:
L   DBU pore
where is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
Consequently, using the time scale ratio with the
appropriate length scale, the following relationships can
be generated for the Stokes number, St, for the two
Reynolds number regimes:
Ds2
St  Re pore for Re pore  1
12DB2

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(4) Figure 5. Seed size (Ds) estimate for St = 0.01 based on
both low and high Re number condition for bead diameter
(DB) of 0.1 mm, 1 mm and 10 mm; the delineation of flow
regimes is Repore<1 (Darcy flow) and Repore >1 (inertial
flows).
DS2
St*  Re 3/2
pore for Re pore  1 (6)
12DB2
An upper limit on an acceptable value for St is much less
than 1. The results of these expressions are plotted in
Fig. 5 for a limiting Stokes number of 0.01, as the seed
size, DS in microns, versus pore Reynolds number for
three different values of bead size, DB, in millimeters,
using a log-log plot. Notice that the seed size
requirement falls off much faster in the inertial regime
due to the thinning of the viscous boundary layer. This
puts severe limitations on the use of PIV at relatively
high values of Repore. Consequently very efficient
scattering seed particles are required into the inertial
regime.
Seed Type Selection
The seed type (material or surface coating) will affect
(5) the light scattering ability for a given size seed.
Alternatively, a fluorescent seed (fluorescent dye within
a porous sphere) will have an emission intensity
dependent on activation intensity and proper
wavelength. In addition, aggregation of seeds within a
given fluid can cause problems with effective particle
size and ability to follow the flow. Within porous media
the ability to measure the flow far from the wall, to
eliminate boundary effects on the flow patterns, requires
sufficient working distance which may compromise the
effective seed image size to minimize uncertainty (the
requirement of 2-3 pixel image size criteria generally
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 (a)

(b) Figure 7. Normalized 90o scattering power, S, for the

four seed types in ammonium thiocynate solution with
an index of refraction of 1.4695; normalization is based
on S of the SHG seeds. Theory is based on Mie
scattering.

considerable lower than that typically used in PIV. The

average intensity of all of the seeds in the image was
calculated using the method described previously. The
theoretical intensity distribution was calculated based on
Mie scattering theory accounting for the capture angle
centered around 90o associated with the image system.
Figure 6. Images of (a) SHG and (b) PS in ammonium
thiocyante solution; the incident laser intensity is five Comparison of the experimental and theoretical values is
times higher for PS shown in Fig. 7 for all four seed types. Note that the
results are normalized by the SHG values and Mie
scattering theory does not apply to the FPS seed. These
used to satisfy a minimum uncertainty based on
results illustrate the strong decay of signal strength using
correlation methods [26]). Besides this, if the index of
PS, BPS and FPS compared with SHG, which have an
refraction is not perfectly matched between the liquid
intensity approximately ten times higher than that of the
and solid phases then there will be some transmission
others. The blue dyed polystyrene microspheres have a
losses. These losses increase with working distance
somewhat reduced image intensity compared with the
because of the increased number of interfaces. Using an
polystyrene. Examining the extinction coefficient of the
imaging system with a high f number (say 8 or greater)
dye explains this response. Shown in Fig. 8 is the
increases the effective image size.
measured absorption spectrum (normalized by the
maximum) for the dye used in the BPS using a UV
Image data were collected and analyzed for the four
spectrometer. Note that the laser excitation wavelength
different types of seed particles. The data consists of
is 527 nm, which indicates that at this wavelength
images taken in an aqueous ammonium thiocyanate
approximately 10 percent of the maximum intensity is
solution. The solution concentration was selection to
absorbed by the dye, thereby reducing the light intensity
provide an index of refraction of 1.4695. The FPS seeds
upon imaging. The theoretical calculation accounted for
were imaged in water since their signal is based on
this reduction by setting an extinction coefficient of
fluorescence power.
0.001 for the BPS seeds. The theoretical results for PS
are lower than that measured. A possible explanation for
Figure 6 shows light scattering images of SHG
this is the rather high surface roughness of these seeds
compared with PS. Note that S polarized light was used
that would increase the detected intensity. The FPS
and that since the SHG has a much higher scattering
seeds have an additional problem of aggregation when
efficiency than PS the light source intensity was five
placed in ammonium thiocyanate solution. An
times greater for the latter case. The images were
ultrasonication process was done for 15 minutes and this
collected at a viewing angle 90o from the laser light
was not sufficient to disperse the seeds.
sheet. Note that the seed density used here is

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 (a)
1

0.8

0.6
/max

0.4

0.2

0
400 500 600 700 800 (b)
(nm)
Figure 8. Absortion spectrum for the dye using in the
BPS seeds based on a UV specrometer.

Light Source Polarization

The use of a laser light sheet for illumination typically
has S polarized light. By converting this to P polarized
light the scattered light can be attenuated. An example
of this for a porous bead is shown in Fig. 9 where Pyrex
beads are arranged in an ammonium thiocyante solution.
The light scattered at the bead-liquid interfaces, due to
diffraction, is effectively eliminated using P polarized
light, as explained previously.
The attenuation of scattered light by polarization allows
for seed particle detection near the bead surface, and
thereby allowing velocity data to be obtained in this
region. As shown in the insert in Fig. 10, the intensity
was measured along a line that passed from one bead to
another at a point where the beads nearly touch. The
same image location was measured with the S and P
polarization. The intensity variation with position is
plotted along with the dark image value (no light
source). The S polarized light (the case shown in the
insert) shows the large intensity peak across the
interface. The P polarized light case results in an
intensity distribution that is flat and essentially identical
with the dark image.
Seed scattering power, S, given in Eqn. 2 is expected to
decrease for P light. To quantify these signal reduction,
the light intensity, or scattering power, S, was measured
as well as determined theoretically using Mie scattering
for the three seed types (SHG, PS and BPS). The ratio
of light scattered at 90o in the P versus S polarization
condition is shown in Fig. 11 for both the measured and
calculated ratio for the three bead types evaluated.
These results indicate that the SHG beads show
approximately 85% of the S polarized light intensity is
retained when using P polarized light. The reduction of
Figure 9. Images of porous bed of pyrex beads in
ammonium thiocyanante solution with S porlaized
light and P polarized light.
the PS and BPS values are approximately 40-45%.
Consequently, the seed surface conditions are an
important parameter in the overall signal to noise ratio
that can be obtained when using P polarized light. Based
on these data, combined with the ten fold increase of
signal strength for SHG shown in Fig. 7, the signal to
noise ratio will be higher by as much as twenty times for
the SHG seed particles compared with PS and BPS, for P
polarized light case.
An illustration of the seed particle images for SHG in a
porous bed consisting of Pyrex beads in ammonium
thiocyanante solution is shown in Fig. 12 for an S and P
polarization light source. The large glare at the surface
of the beads seen for the S polarized light case is
eliminated when changed to P polarization. Note also
that there are several reasons that the number of seeds
visible in the P polarized image are less than that in the S
polarized image. Firstly, the light that is scattered at all
of the liquid/solid interfaces will increase the effective
thickness of the light sheet used to illuminate the seed
resulting in seeds detected that do not lye within the
intended light sheet thickness, this can be a problem
resulting in increased noise in PIV calculations.
Secondly, the loss of intensity for the P polarization case,

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Figure 10. Intensity profile along a line passing
through two solid beads near their interface, the
beads are in ammonium thiocyanate solution; the
same location is used for S and P polarized light.
as shown in Fig. 11, will result in loss of imaged seed
particles, but this loss is not severe, on the order of a
15% intensity decrease. Thirdly, these images were not
taken at the same time (although they are at the same
location in the bed) and the number of seeds within the
field of view may be smaller.
Conclusions
The scattering capability of four seed types: silver coated
hollow glass spheres, polystyrene spheres, dyed
polystyrene spheres, and fluorescent filled polystyrene
spheres was examined for a porous media environment.
Scattering intensity of each was measure and it is found
that the silver coated spheres, coupled with the use of P
polarized light, provide the best scattering intensity
coupled with low noise background. Measurements
agree well with Mie scattering theory. The P
polarization results in elimination of scattered light at
interfaces. The high electrical conductance of silver
makes the SHG seeds insensitive to polarization and
hence the best option to use with a P polarized light
source. Due to the slight loss in intensity for the P
polarized light the seed density may need to be increased
Figure 11. P versus S polarized light intensity ratio
scattered from three different seed particles
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Figure 12. Images of SHG seed particles in a porous
bed of Pyrex beads and ammonium thiocynate
solution; left is using S polarized light and right is
using P polarized light.
to achieve needed seed number density. Challenges of
achieving good seed distributions in porous media need
to be explored. Stokes number criterion for seed size
estimation, based on a viscous boundary layer thickness,
was defined for porous media flows in the inertial flow
regime. Seed size required to follow the flow is
presented for varying pore Reynolds number and bead
diameter, or pore sizes.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by NSF grant 0933857, under the
Particulate and Multiphase Processes program and is
very much appreciated.
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