Journal of Cleaner Production 140 (2017) 1129e1135

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Technical note

Effective utilisation of quartz sandstone mining wastes: A technical

note on its thermal resistance
Sanjeev Kumar*, Ramesh Chandra Gupta, Sandeep Shrivastava
Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur, 302017, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Sandstones are a sedimentary type of rock which is composed of quartz, feldspar and other minerals.
Received 30 June 2016 Since quartz and feldspar are the most common minerals in the Earth's crust, they are found in most of
Received in revised form the sandstones irrespective of the region they occur. The formation of sandstone results by sedimen-
10 October 2016
tation through air or wind followed by the compacting pressure of overlying deposits and cementation
Accepted 12 October 2016
Available online 13 October 2016
by precipitation of minerals. Rajasthan, being the largest state by area in India, is the major sandstone
producing region. Although sandstones from the area are extensively used as roofing, flooring and paving
material, the process of mining them generates an enormous amount of sandstone wastes. These
Keywords:
Aeolian process
sandstone wastes with quartz-dominated elemental framework were utilised in an M30 grade concrete
Concrete with water to cement ratio of 0.35 to overcome the landfilling problems and to reduce the use of
Microstructure depleting conventional coarse aggregates in the Vindhyan regions of Northern India. The concrete
Mining waste samples were investigated by scanning electron microscopy and thermogravimetry. The microscopic
Sandstone study revealed the presence of increased void fractions in the concrete samples containing quartz
Thermogravimetric analysis sandstone aggregates. These void fractions were found to enhance the thermal resistance of concrete
based on the reduced weight loss upon heating them and also assumed to improve insulation properties
by hindering the heat transfer in the material. The efficient utilisation of these quartz sandstone wastes
in concrete can reduce the substantial amount of landfill that is used for dumping them and also provide
a valuable source of supplementary aggregate used in the production of cement concrete contributing to
the overall sustainability.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction in arid regions. Even though water is the commanding erodible

The term sandstone denotes a rock formed by grains which are
sand-sized. Quartz sandstones have a framework of about 90%
quartz and with the limited amount of some other grains like
feldspars and lithic fragments. These quartz sandstones belong to
mature or sub-mature types of sedimentary rocks and are usually
cemented by silica, which binds the sand-sized grains together.
Most of the quartz sandstones exhibit textural and compositional
maturity by sedimentology due to various types of sediment
transportation. The two most common depositional environments
that produce quartz sandstones are shallow sea shore areas i.e.
upper shore-face and Aeolian processes. Aeolian process are the
wind events that have the capability to shape the surface of the
earth which may transport, erode and deposit sediment materials
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sanmfsd@gmail.com (S. Kumar).
force when compared to the wind, in deserts wind becomes the
only transport mechanism which disintegrates sediment materials.
The mode of transport of soil particles during wind erosion is
governed by soil particle size (Jia et al., 2015). The moisture content
of the soil in these arid regions is less than 10%, and hence it does
not prevent erosion of fine particles (Silva et al., 2015). Hence
greater amounts of finer particles are transported due to the
Aeolian process leading to massive accumulations of sandstone
reserves all over the region. Such enormous accumulations of
sandstone wastes lead to landfilling problems affecting the overall
sustainability of the region (Table 1). Although there are some
literature focussing on the types of sandstone and their significant
effect on concrete's strength, there is very limited research focus-
sing on thermal effects of concretes containing quartz sandstone
aggregates. Northern states of India, like Rajasthan, produce huge
amounts of sandstone wastes. The disposal of these wastes is a
severe social and environmental problem. The recycling of these

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.053
0959-6526/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1130 S. Kumar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 140 (2017) 1129e1135

Table 1
The output of mined out sandstone reserves in Rajasthan, India.

Sandstone Waste Generated (in thousand tonnes)

Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Mined Mine waste @ Sandstone Production as Dressing Waste Processing Dressing Total Finished
out 25% of Mine per DMG, Rajasthan (As (Lumps - 15% of Waste þ Polishing Waste Waste þ Polishing þ Processing Waste Goods by
Reserves Production (3) Blocks or Khandas) Block Waste) (Powdered - 25% of Block waste Weight (1-7)
weight)

2001 8233 2058 6175 926 1544 2470 4528 3705

2002 7636 1909 5727 859 1432 2291 4200 3436
2003 9783 2446 7338 1101 1834 2935 5381 4403
2004 11176 2794 8382 1257 2096 3353 6147 5029
2005 9359 2340 7019 1053 1755 2808 5147 4211
2006 10409 2602 7807 1171 1952 3123 5725 4684
2007 11594 2898 8695 1304 2174 3478 6376 5217
2008 13956 3489 10467 1570 2617 4187 7676 6280
2009 18462 4616 13847 2077 3462 5539 10154 8308
2010 15632 3908 11724 1759 2931 4690 8598 7034
2011 18840 4710 14130 2120 3533 5653 10363 8477
2012 21841 5460 16381 2457 4095 6652 12112 9729
2013 e2014 43351 10838 32513 4877 8128 13005
23843 19508
Total 200272 50068 150205 22531 37553 60184 110250 90021

Data Source, Centre for Development of stones, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.

wastes as aggregate to produce new concrete can reduce the 3. Methodology

problem of waste and help the preservation of natural aggregate
resources (Peem Nuaklong et al., 2016). The building and con-
struction industry contributes to the increase of carbon emissions
level in many aspects, such as manufacturing of raw materials and
transportation of finished products (Yun Zhong and Peng Wu,
2015). Also, concrete industry is one of the major sources of
consuming the high volume of natural resources (Payam Shafigh
et al., 2016). Therefore, for construction to be more cost-effective
and environmentally-friendly it could be useful to combine the
building of new lightweight structures with the use of a secondary
lightweight aggregate source (Jose Alexandre Bogas et al., 2015). On
successful utilisation of quartz sandstones, the concrete is expected
to have an increased thermal efficiency, cause the less landfilling
problem, decrease depletion of natural coarse aggregates whereby
contributing to the overall sustainability.
2. Material properties and preparation of test samples
Ordinary Portland cement of grade 43, conforming to IS: 8112
(1989) was used (specific gravity 3.15, normal consistency 32%,
initial setting time 66 min and final setting time 164 min). Natural
river sand confirming to zone II as per IS: 383 (1970) (void content
34% as per ASTM C 29/C 29M (2009), specific gravity 2.63, free
surface moisture content 1% and fineness modulus 2.83). Coarse
aggregates, 10 mm size (fineness modulus 6.08) and 20 mm size
(fineness modulus 7.22) crushed stone were used as coarse aggre-
gates with an average specific gravity of 2.64. Quartz sandstone
coarse aggregate, 10 mm size (fineness modulus 6.04) and 25 mm
size (fineness modulus 7.24) were used as partial replacement for
coarse aggregates with an average specific gravity of 2.45. The
particle size distribution, composition of aggregates, cement
properties and gradation details are the same as given in Kumar
et al. (2016a,b). The substitution of quartz sandstones were done
from 0% to 100% at multiples of 20%. Control mix consists of 0%
quartz sandstone and substitution of coarse aggregates was done
for 0e100%, in the multiples of 20%.
The methodology of the observations carried out are as follows.
3.1. Scanning electron microscopic observations (SEM)
Scanning electron microscopic observations are important for
finding maturity of sedimentary rocks and also to study the me-
chanical and durability properties of concrete in detail (Peng et al.,
2015). Microstructural specimens were obtained from M30 grade
concrete cubes (w/c of 0.35) designed as per IS: 10262 (2010) and
IS: 456 (2000). Concrete specimens had quartz sandstone re-
placements at increasing percentages of 0%e100% with 20% steps.
Several studies have found that some of the wastes do not interfere
with the hydration process and/or the morphology of hydrated
products, thereby making the microstructure present in the inter-
facial zone denser. Sometimes the concrete prepared with light-
weight and porous aggregates such as sandstones are stronger in
compression than the gravel aggregate concrete due to enhanced
hydration as a result of internal curing (Medina et al., 2012; Erdem
et al., 2012). However, excess water beyond the stoichiometric
demand for hydration might add to the porosity of the matrix
declining the strength gain. Similar penetration studies were done
on cement mortars and concrete such as high strength light weight
aggregate concrete and metakaolin (Halamickova et al., 1995; Chia
and Zhang, 2002; Khatri and Sirivivatnanon, 1997; Boddy et al.,
2001; Yang and Cho, 2003; Shi, 2004).
An S-4700 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FE-
SEM) was used to image the concrete samples. On replacement of
quartz sandstones in concrete, scanning electron microscope im-
ages showed slightly greater porosity and also finer grain structure
as moving from the control concrete to those having replacements
by quartz sandstone. The increase in porosity may be due to using
of sedimentary stone when compared to the control concrete made
from magmatic rock aggregate, and sandstone is assumed to absorb
more water which in turn leaves gaps between the sandstone and
cement paste, as seen by SEM (Fig. 1). The other reason corre-
sponding to the increased porosity is inherited from the formation
process of sandstone itself (i.e. sedimentation) resulting in voids
within the material.
 S. Kumar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 140 (2017) 1129e1135 1131

Fig. 1. SEM images of concrete specimens showing increased finer grain structure upon adding quartz sandstone aggregates 10000 magnification.

3.2. Textural maturity of quartz sandstone based on Folk's
classification
The textural maturity of soft rocks like sandstones depend on
how stable they are when exposed to weathering. It also describes
the texture and composition of grains in sedimentary rocks like
sandstones which are the outcome of various types of sediment
transportation. As the sediments are transported due to weathering
action, the unstable minerals are dissolved to form more stable
minerals such as quartz. By sedimentology, it can be categorised
into mature, sub-mature and immature (Table 2). The clay content
in the sub arkose sandstone wastes was below 5% having some
unstable and lithic fragments such as feldspar, and the grains were
moderately sorted (mostly angular and few rounded grains). From
SEM, X-ray diffraction and methylene blue observations, it was
found that the sub arkose sandstone wastes belong to the sub-
mature category (Kumar et al., 2016a,b).
3.3. Thermogravimetric analysis
Thermogravimetric analysis is a type of testing that is carried
out to determine the changes in the mass of a specimen on changes
in temperature. A Simultaneous Thermal Analyser (STA 6000) with
Pyris Instrument Viewer software was used for analysing the
samples. The sample was checked to be compatible with the
ceramic crucible used at the temperature, atmosphere and duration
of the test. Nitrogen gas was connected to the analyser in the bal-
ance port, and a purge gas flow rate of 30 ml/min was applied. The
temperature was increased at the rate of 20  C/min, and the Pyris
manager software was used to obtain and smoothen the curves
after the run was complete, with the furnace returning to room
temperature. Some of the researchers have witnessed a loss of
bound water at 50  Ce600  C and correlated with hydration rate
changes taking place in the concrete samples containing other
stone wastes in concrete (Singh et al., 2016; Rana et al., 2015).
Mass loss of hydration products assigned to specific tempera-
ture ranges by several researchers are as follows: 30e105  C due to
evaporation of free (capillary) water; 110e170  C due to decom-
position of ettringite; 180e300  C due to partial dehydroxylation of
CeSeH (possibly indicating partial transformation of CeSeH gel to
xonotlite); 400e500  C dihydroxylation of portlandite (Ca(OH)2);
700e900  C due calcination of CaCO3 and dehydroxylation of
xonotlite (Cheyrezy et al., 1995; Ruiza et al., 2005; Helmi et al.,
2016). A similar weight loss pattern was obtained for the concrete
samples containing quartz sandstone (Fig. 2). The pattern showed a
decrease in loss of weight as quartz sandstone was added in con-
crete as a replacement for coarse aggregates. However, at 40% and
60% replacements, the pattern was almost the same with very little
deviation and it is evident from the pattern that there is loss of
moisture content upon heating with major events occurring at
150  C, 450  C and 750  C (Fig. 3). Ettringite starts to lose water and
transform to mono sulphate at as low as 67  C, the event at 150  C

Table 2
Textural maturity of sandstone based on clay content, minerals present and type of grains (Folk, 1951).

Maturity Clay content Minerals present Grain type

Immature Greater than 5% clays or Large proportion of unstable minerals such as feldspar and lithic Angular and diverse grain sizes.
silt. fragments.
Sub- Less than 5% clays or silt. Some unstable minerals and lithic fragments. Moderately sorted grains (Mostly angular and a few rounded
mature grains).
Mature Less than 5% clay or silt. Stable minerals like lithics and chert. Clusters are sub-angular to sub-round.
1132 S. Kumar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 140 (2017) 1129e1135
Fig. 2. Weight % vs Temperature for various substitutions of quartz sandstone.
Fig. 3. DTG curves showing major events upon temperature change.
Fig. 4. Vertical drop plot showing portlandite and calcite decomposition upon quartz
sandstone replacement.
may be the decomposition of mono sulphate. The 450  C event shall
then be linked to portlandite, whereas the 750  C event to CaCO3
(present as carbonated portlandite or as part of the constituent
materials (e.g. aggregate)).
The plots were further studied in detail to analyse the decom-
position of portlandite and calcite as the quartz sandstone dosage
was increased in cement concrete (Fig. 4). As the quartz sandstone
dosage increases, there is less portlandite available in the mixes due
to more moisture absorption i.e. less reacted cement means less
portlandite generation. For calcite, the reason may be due to a low
amount of it being present in the sandstone aggregate when
compared to conventional coarse aggregates.
3.4. Action of fire
It is important to understand the fire endurance of a construc-
tion material inorder to ensure safety for life and property. Concrete
members generally exhibit good fire resistant properties due to its
low thermal conductivity, high thermal capacity and slow degra-
dation of mechanical properties of concrete with temperature
(Kodur and Agrawal, 2016). No standard test procedures exist for
high temperature testing in concrete. Most of the researchers have
employed testing concrete at higher temperatures and finding its
residual strength after its exposure (Cree et al., 2013). The concrete
containing 0%, 20%, 60% and 100% of quartz sandstones were tested
against fire with an increasing temperature upto 800  C (Figs. 5 and
6). The loss in compressive strength of specimens at 200  C, 400  C,
600  C and 800  C were observed (Figs. 7e9). A maximum loss in
compressive strength (80%) was observed at 800  C for the control
mix at 0.45 water-cement ratio and a minimum loss (66%) was
observed for the mix with 100% quartz sandstone concrete at 0.35
water-cement-ratio at the same temperature. At 600  C, the
maximum loss in compressive strength was observed for the con-
trol mix (56%) at 0.45 water-cement ratio and minimum loss was
observed for mix with 100% quartz sandstone concrete at 0.35
water-cement ratio. Similar results were also observed at 400  C
and 200  C testing temperatures. A maximum loss of 40% and 28%
was observed for the control mixes at 400  C and 200  C. The
minimum loss in compressive strength was about 23% and 18% for
the mixes with 100% quartz sandstone at 400  C and 200  C. The
residual compressive strength observed was similar to that of
Mohamedbhai (Mohamedbhai, 1986) results. He studied the effects
of exposure time and rates of heating and cooling on residual
strength of heated concrete. From the results it can be said that the
concrete mix with increased percentages of quartz sandstone per-
formed better than that of mix with control concrete made with
conventional coarse aggregates.
4. Results and discussions
Quartz sandstones wastes obtained from Dholpur mines in
Rajasthan were used as a partial replacement for coarse aggregate
in cement concrete. The textural maturity of the sandstones were
studied using microscopic observations and thermogravimetric
analyses were carried out to identify the observed weight losses in
the concrete sample containing quartz sandstone aggregates. The
following conclusions can be drawn based on this study:
 Quartz sandstones which were formed due to the Aeolian pro-
cess had mostly angular and few sub-rounded grains and
belonged to the sub-mature category based on Folk's sandstone
classification.
 The microstructural study revealed increased porosity and finer
grain structure as the quartz sandstone aggregate was replaced
with conventional coarse aggregates. This is due to the use of the
 S. Kumar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 140 (2017) 1129e1135 1133

Fig. 5. Equipment used to regulate fire in concrete samples.

Fig. 6. Concrete image after exposure to fire at 800  C.

Fig. 8. Maximum compressive strength loss of the specimens for water-cement ratio
of 0.40.

sedimentary type of stone applied which absorbs more water

and leaves a gap between the aggregate and cement paste.
 Although increased porosities were observed in SEM micro-
graphs, thermogravimetric results showed a decrease in the
percentage of weight loss as the quartz sandstone aggregate was
replaced by conventional aggregates. This can be due to in-
creases of void spaces that hinder heat transfer as the dosage of
sandstone aggregates increased.
 DTG graphs showed major events occurring at 150  C, 450  C
and 750  C. On further analysis, loss in portlandite and calcite
contributed to this less as the quartz sandstone content was
increased in cement concrete.
 Local water deficient regions e.g. interfacial transition zones
Fig. 7. Maximum compressive strength loss of the specimens for water-cement ratio of
might have reduced rate of hydration reaction which would
0.35. have reduced the amount of portlandite generated when
cement clinker turns to C-S-H gel and portlandite.
1134 S. Kumar et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 140 (2017) 1129e1135
Fig. 9. Maximum compressive strength loss of the specimens for water-cement ratio
of 0.45.
 On another account, portlandite is basic (in the meaning of non-
acidic), and its quantity might be affected by ‘acidic' constitu-
ents. Sandstone may be siliceous, which in theory acts like that,
although the thermodynamics of the process may not make it a
valid procedure in the time-frame observed here.
 Concrete made with quartz sandstones performed well against
the action of fire. Minimum loss in compressive strength was
observed for samples with 100% quartz sandstone substitution
thus making it a suitable material for fire resistance.
5. Conclusions
The concrete samples having various replacement levels of
quartz sandstones were tested for its thermal resistant properties.
The following conclusions may be drawn from the study;
The increased void fractions detected by scanning electron
microscopic observations hinder the heat transfer as observed by
thermogravimetric analysis and reduce the weight loss of the
concrete samples containing quartz sandstone coarse aggregates.
Depending on the preferred strength of concrete samples to be
attained, dosages of quartz sandstone may be taken up to 60%. It
was also observed that at 40% and 60% replacement levels, the loss
of moisture content at temperature ranges at 150  C, 450  C and
750  C were almost the same with very little deviation. From the
above results, it can be concluded that the quartz sandstone wastes,
when added as coarse aggregate replacement in concrete, is highly
beneficial for its thermal resisting property. Furthermore, it leads to
the decrease in landfilling of sandstone wastes and also contains
the use of depleting natural aggregates thus contributing to the
overall sustainability of cleaner production.
Acknowledgments
The data reported in this study is based on information provided
from several research projects. The Authors would like to
acknowledge the contribution made by Laszlo J Csetenyi and Con-
crete Technology Unit, University of Dundee, United Kingdom and
Material Research Centre, MNIT Jaipur, Rajasthan, India for micro-
scopic studies.
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