Accepted Manuscript

Potential effects of groundwater and surface water contamination in

an urban area, Qus City, Upper Egypt

Fathy Abdalla, Ramadan Khalil

PII: S1464-343X(18)30048-7
10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2018.02.
DOI: 016

Reference: AES 3148

Journal of African Earth
To appear in: Sciences

Received Date: 21 December 2016

Revised Date: 20 February 2018

Accepted Date: 21 February 2018

Please cite this article as: Fathy Abdalla, Ramadan Khalil, Potential effects of
groundwater and surface water contamination in an urban area, Qus City, Upper
Egypt, Journal of African Earth Sciences (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2018.02.016

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Potential effects of groundwater and surface water contamination in an

urban area, Qus City, Upper Egypt

Fathy Abdallaa,b*, Ramadan Khalilc

a
Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
b
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, South Valley University, Egypt

cEnvironmental Affairs Office, Luxor, Egypt

*
Corresponding author. fabdalla@ksu.edu.sa

ABSTRACT
The potential effects of anthropogenic activities, in particular, unsafe sewage disposal

practices, on shallow groundwater in an unconfined aquifer and on surface water were evaluated

within an urban area by the use of hydrogeological, hydrochemical, and bacteriological analyses.

Physico-chemical and bacteriological data was obtained from forty-five sampling points based

on33 groundwater samples from variable depths and 12 surface water samples. The pollution

sources are related to raw sewage and wastewater discharges, agricultural runoff, and wastewater

from the nearby Paper Factory. Out of the 33 groundwater samples studied, 17 had significant

- - 2-
concentrations of NO3 , Cl and SO4 , and high bacteria counts. Most of the water samples from

the wells contained high Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn, Cd, and Cr. The majority of surface water samples

- -
presented high NO3 concentrations and high bacteria counts. A scatter plot of HCO 3 versus Ca

indicates that 58 % of the surface water samples fall within the extreme contamination zone,

while the others are within the mixing zone; whereas 94 % of groundwater samples showed

evidence of mixing between groundwater and wastewater. The bacteriological assessment

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showed that all measured surface and groundwater samples contained Escherichia coli and total

coliform bacteria. A risk map delineated four classes of contamination, namely, those sampling

points with high (39.3 %), moderate (36.3 %), low (13.3 %), and very low (11.1 %) levels of

contamination. Most of the highest pollution points were in the middle part of the urban area,

which suffers from unmanaged sewage and industrial effluents. Overall, the results demonstrate

that surface and groundwater in Qus City are at high risk of contamination by wastewater since

the water table is shallow and there is a lack of a formal sanitation network infrastructure. The

product risk map is a useful tool for prioritizing zones that require immediate mitigation and

monitoring.

Keywords: Sewage disposal, groundwater, contamination, hydrochemistry, bacteriological

analysis, Qus City

1. INTRODUCTION
Hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical characteristics of groundwater can be adversely

affected by various anthropogenic activities such as urbanization, industry, and agriculture

(Jeong, 2001; Foppen, 2002; Powell et al., 2003; Ellis and Rivett, 2007). In particular, human

activities such as the installation of sewer systems can disturb groundwater levels in shallow

aquifers that are highly vulnerable to contamination by causing a significant drop of the water

level at the local scale due to the abstraction of large quantities of groundwater. Consequently,

water laden with pollutants from raw sewage disposal flows toward the low-lying parts of a city,

and this situation may be exacerbated after pumping is stopped, which will cause a further rise in

the groundwater level. Deterioration in both the quantity and quality of groundwater represents a

potential threat to urban communities. In Egypt, domestic wastewater is estimated to be between

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5.5 and 6.5 billion m (BCM)/yr, but only 2.97 BCM is subject to treatment processes. Out of

this treated portion, about 0.7 BCM/yr is reused for agriculture purposes, of which 0.44 BCM

undergoes primary treatment and the rest (0.26 BCM) is subjected to secondary treatment

(Abdel-Shafy and Abdel-Sabour, 2006).

In the study area, the sewage network to collect and treat sewage is under construction, and

therefore, sewage is currently disposed of and collected in underground sewage rooms, which

have been constructed to be in direct contact with groundwater. No isolating surfaces or lined

beds are present to prevent the sewage water and other contaminants from reaching and mixing

with groundwater. In some areas of the city, sewage is discharged directly over the ground or into

canals and drains (Fig. 1). As sewage water infiltrates into the shallow aquifer, pathogenic

organisms such as bacteria and viruses can easily move within the aquifer and contaminate the

groundwater. In the study area, wastewater discharges include domestic raw sewage, agricultural

waste, and industrial effluents.

Figure 1. Location map of the study area.

Raw sewage is a potential source of various contaminants including pathogenic microbes,

nutrients, toxic metals, and organic compounds (Gardner, 1997; Geriesh et al., 2004; USEPA, 2004),

which can migrate downward directly to the groundwater. The human faecal material is comprised of

7
a significant portion (~25%) of bacteria and contains approximately 3×10 coliform bacteria/100 mL;

these microbes are diverse with respect to their ability to travel through the soil matrix (DeBorde et

al., 1998). Microorganisms including faecal coliform bacteria (e.g.,

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Escherichia coli) and total coliform bacteria, as pathogenic indicator species, do not necessarily

themselves cause disease, but they signal that the water is contaminated with disease-causing

pathogens (Macler and Merkel, 2000; APHA, 2012). Total coliform counts in contaminated

water are usually 10-times higher than faecal coliform counts. The threat to public health due to

the transmission of pathogenic bacteria from sewage systems to groundwater has been reported

worldwide. Many diseases may be caused by bacteria, such as diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, and

typhoid fever (DeBorde et al., 1998; Powell et al., 2003; Lerner and Harris, 2009). To avoid or

minimize the adverse impacts of bacteriological contamination, groundwater production wells

must be placed at a safe distance from contamination sources (Table 1); this distance depends

upon the hydraulic properties of the soil type, such as hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate.

Table 1. Table showing the recommended minimum distance between a groundwater well and

source of contamination (Raghunath, 1987).

Besides geogenic sources, various anthropogenic sources including domestic sewage,

agricultural runoff, and industrial effluents contain a complex mixture of inorganic compounds

that are potentially harmful to groundwater quality in the area. These sources may include nitrate

-
(NO3 ) and potentially toxic heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, Zn, Fe, Mn and Cr in high

concentrations. Typical sources of nitrate in groundwater are mainly related to agricultural and

domestic wastewater discharges (Andersen and Kristiansen, 1983; Liu et al., 2005). Bacterial

decomposition of organic matter present in sewage and animal waste is a common source of

nitrate to water. Nitrate contents above the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines may
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cause health problems for infants, as nitrate interferes with the blood’s ability to transport oxygen

and causes oxygen deficiencies, which may lead to methemoglobinemia.

Trace elements in groundwater are typically present in small quantities (˂1 mg/L). According

to the carcinogenic classifications of heavy metals in drinking water by the International Agency

for Research on Cancer (IARC, 2012), Cd, Cr, and Pb are classified as carcinogenic substances,

while Zn, Fe, and Mn are classified as non-carcinogenic. Additional health impacts of heavy

metals in drinking water have been reported by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

(USEPA, 1994) and WHO (WHO, 2008). Furthermore, various organic compounds may be

found in household discharges, including grease, detergent wastes, cleaning solvents, oil, and

pharmaceutical drugs. The presence of clay–silt and fill deposit layers covering an aquifer may

provide some protection because of their strong adsorption ability (Gu et al., 2010).

Unfortunately, contamination risks for shallow aquifers are expected to be high.

In the study area, the subsurface infiltration of a considerable amount of raw sewage water

into the ground has resulted in waterlogged areas and groundwater pollution. An assessment of

the hydrochemical and bacteriological characteristics of the surface and groundwater resources

was carried out to examine the adverse impacts of wastewater disposal in the area. Our objective

here was to investigate the interaction of wastewater with surface and shallow groundwater

resources in the study area and to identify potential contamination from anthropogenic sources.

This was achieved by quantifying the different types of pollutants and surveying the possible

sources of contamination, which included discharges of raw sewage, irrigation return flows, and

effluents from the Paper Factory.

2. GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

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The study area lies in the southern part of Upper Egypt along the Nile between Qena and

Luxor (Fig. 1); between latitudes of 25°50ʹ and 25º 57ʹ N and longitudes of 32°45ʹ and 32°48ʹ E.

The area is site to many human-related activities, where the principal land use is a mixture of

residential and agricultural uses. The region is characterized by cultivated land of the Nile

floodplain ranging in elevation between 70.5 and 79.6 m (mamsl (meters above mean sea level)

(Abdalla et al., 2009). The study area is located in the arid zone, which is characterized by arid

and hot weather conditions. The temperature varies from 23 °C in winter to 44 °C in summer.

Rainfall is very rare and not significant throughout the year; however, random flash showers

sometimes occur during winter. The mean annual value of rainfall is ˂5 mm/yr, while the

evapotranspiration rate is 185 cm/yr.

The geological sequences in the study area include sedimentary rocks belonging to the Upper

Cretaceous, the Tertiary, and the Quaternary. The Tertiary and Quaternary deposits overly

Precambrian basement rocks (Fig. 2). According to Said (1981) and Omran et al. (2001), the

oldest exposed sedimentary rocks are of Eocene age and composed of low-fissured limestone

with clay and/or silt intercalations (Thebes Formation). The Pliocene deposits formed as a result

of aggradations and degradations of Nile Valley material (Ezz El Deen et al., 2014). The upper

part of the Paleocene deposits is known as the Dakhla Formation, and Tarawan Chalk, they

composed of shale and marl is present where the lower part is composed of Esna Shale. The

Upper Cretaceous deposits include the Duwi Formation (phosphates) and the Dakhla Formation

(sand, shale, marl, and limestone) (Ezz El Deen et al., 2014), while the recent Nile deposits of

Quaternary age are composed from Pleistocene (sand and gravel) and Holocene sediments (silty

clay).
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Figure 2. Geological map of the study area (after EGSMA, 2002).

2.1. Surface water -Nile River system

The Nile River along with the two main irrigation canals namely El-Kalabia and El-Gamalia

and several other small irrigation canals and drains represent the surface water system in the Qus

area (Fig. 1) .The Nile borders Qus City on the western side, and water is used directly and

indirectly (via irrigation canals) for irrigation. The width of the valley in the study area is about

20 km, and the Nile River is 750 m at its widest point. At the High Dam area, the maximum

water level of the Nile is 169 m (amsl) in August, and the minimum water level is 163 m (amsl)

in July. In the study area, the maximum water level of the Nile is 72 m (amsl) in July, and the

minimum water level is 66 m (amsl) in January (personal communication, Qena Irrigation

Administration, 2010). These water level values are lower than the groundwater table in the

surrounding Quaternary aquifer (Table 2).

Table 2. Physiochemical parameters of surface and groundwater, WT=water table, Na = not

measured, very shallow wells in bold.

2.2. Irrigation canals

There are two main canals crossing Qus City (Fig. 1): the El-Kalabia and the El-Gamalia.

The El-Kalabia canal extends for about 270 km from the Esna barrages to the north of Nag

Hammadi, and passes northward on the eastern side of the city. The maximum water level in the

El-Kalabia canal in the upstream southern portion at Esna is 71.8 m (amsl) in July, while the

minimum water level is 66 m (amsl) in January. The El-Gamalia canal lies on the western side of
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the city and is about 9 km in length. It starts from El-Sabah-Euon (southwestern part of the city)

and passes through several villages in the city; and terminates at EL-Shaikhia in Qift City. Also,

there are two small canals namely Qus and El-Maara that cross on the southwestern parts of the

city (Fig. 1). The EL-Maara canal begins at the entrance of Qus City in Higgaza and ends in

Abbasa village. The Qus canal is about 6 km in length, and starts in El-Kharanka village and

ends in Abbasa village. Large quantities of wastewater and solid wastes are discharged directly

into the two canals and transported indirectly to the groundwater.

2.3. Agricultural drains

The Qus drain is the main drain serving the irrigated land in the study area (Fig. 1). The drain

water is reused for irrigation either directly or indirectly via discharges into the Nile and/or the

main canals. The reuse of drainage water for irrigation reduces the amount of fresh water

required for crops.

2.4. Surface runoff

Runoff represents the rainfall water that passes through the drainage basins when the rainfall

intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity and leads to destructive flash floods. A significant

runoff event occurred in November 1994, and the water caused extensive damage to the houses

and other infrastructure (e.g., roads, houses and water reticulation pipes) in Higgaza village.

2.5 Groundwater system (Quaternary aquifer)

Groundwater occurs under unconfined conditions in two shallow and hydraulically connected

layers, which consist of a highly permeable and porous Pleistocene layer (gravels and various

graded sand) on the bottom and a semi-permeable Holocene layer (clay–silt and/or fill deposits)
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on the top. The aquifer is underlain by Pliocene clays, which form an impervious base. The

thickness of this aquifer, as well as its width, differs from one locality to another; for example, its

thickness decreases from 300 m at Sohag to a few tens of meters in the southwestern part of

Luxor (Sayed, 2004). The Holocene layer has low horizontal and vertical permeability, and it is a

local and moderately to the low productive aquifer. The aquifer is very thick near the river

channel and vanishing near the fringes of the valley; the thickness varies from 5 to 26 m (Abu El

Elaa, 1990; Abdalla et al., 2009). Its horizontal and vertical permeability range from 0.40 to 1.00

m/d, and the vertical hydraulic conductivity is low and increases with depth (Abd El-Moneim,

1988). The Pleistocene layer forms the main aquifer and has high horizontal and vertical

permeability. It is a high to moderate productive aquifer that situated along the course of the Nile

River. Its hydraulic conductivity varies from 60 to 100 m/d, and the transmissivity ranges from

2 -4
2000 to 6000 m /d (Attia, 1985). The values of aquifer storativity amount to 5 to 50 × 10 for

the semi-confined aquifer and 0.1 to 0.2 for the unconfined one. The upper semi-permeable clay–

silt and/or fill deposit layer drains to the lower layer. According to earlier work (Barber and Carr,

1981; Farrag, 1982; Abd El-Moneim, 1988; Ahmed, 2003), infiltration test results showed that

there was an infiltration rate of 2.5 m/d on average, which is indicative of good hydraulic

connectivity between these two layers. The groundwater generally flows toward the north, and

other local flow directions can be found either from or toward the Nile River, which acts as a

major natural drain. Potential contamination from surface activities, especially discharged

wastewater, is expected to affect the aquifer through vertical infiltration.

Severely polluted surface waters artificially recharge the Quaternary aquifer in the study area.

The recharge components consist of (1) seepage from irrigation canals along with infiltration of

the irrigation-return flows where the city is surrounded by an agricultural belt of

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sugarcane fields; (2) domestic and industrial wastewater infiltration; (3) seepage from the

broken-down drinking water supply network; and (4) upward leakage from the deep aquifers

through fractures in the rocks. The recharge from irrigation was determined to be 0.8–1.1 mm/d

over the clay (semi-confined) and 1.9–2.1 mm/d over the unconfined areas (Warner et al., 1991).

Direct groundwater pumping from wells, especially for irrigations purposes, takes place in the

new reclamation area, and water is ultimately discharged to the Nile; additionally, upward

capillary flow occurs from the shallow water table owing to evapotranspiration. These are the

main discharge components from the aquifer.

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Sampling and analytical procedures

A total of 12 surface water samples were collected from irrigation canals and drains crossing

the city as well as the Paper Factory Lake (samples 34 and 35 were from the El-Maara canal,

samples 36 and 37 were from the Qus drain, samples 38, 39, 40, 41, and 42 were from the Qus

canal, sample 43 was from the Paper Factory Lake, and samples 44 and 45 were from the El-

Gamalia canal); additionally, 33 groundwater samples were collected (24 samples were from

very shallow wells 1–3.5 m in depth (Table 2, bold lines), and 9 samples were from shallow

wells 8–12 m in depth). Both the residential area and the surrounding cultivated land were

sampled to obtain data for the physicochemical analyses. The bacteriological analysis was

carried out for 23 selected water samples (17 groundwater and 6 surface water samples). Sample

bottles were cleaned, dried, and washed again before taking the sample with the sample water.

All water samples were sealed carefully and labelled after collection. The samples were put into

an ice box and then delivered to a refrigerator where they were stored at 4°C until being sent out
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to laboratories for the analysis. Samples for heavy metals measurements were acidified by nitric

acid and kept in the refrigerator until analysis, and samples for nitrate measurements were

acidified by sulfuric acid and delivered to a laboratory for analysis. Salinity, total dissolved

solids (TDS), temperature (T), pH, redox potential (ORP), alkalinity, and electric conductivity

(EC) were directly measured in the field. Major ions, trace inorganics, silica, and bacteriological

analyses (E. coli and total coliform bacteria) for surface and groundwater samples were

undertaken at the Laboratory of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency at Aswan. Methods

for the collection and analysis of water samples essentially followed those given by the American

Public Health Association (APHA) (APHA, 2012), and to evaluate the validity of the analytical

data, field blanks and field duplicates were incorporated. The chemical analyses for the major

2+ 2+ + +
cations (Ca , Mg , Na , K ) were performed by using a Spectra-AA-55 Atomic Absorption

-
Spectrophotometer. The titration method was used for determinations of the anions HCO 3 and

- 2- -
Cl . A DR/2400 Spectrophotometer was used for the determination of SO 4 , NO3 , trace

elements (Pb, Cd, Zn, Fe, Mn, Cr), and silica (SiO2).

3.2. Microbiological analysis

Surface and groundwater samples for microbiological analysis were collected separately

from 23 locations (17 groundwater and 8 surface water samples) (Table 3) in sterile 500-mL

polyethylene containers. Collected samples were brought to the laboratory on ice, and the

analysis was conducted within 24 h. Sterilized syringes were carefully used for water sampling

to avoid contamination. The water was first pumped for 5 min, and then, sample containers were

filled with the sterilized syringes. The containers were immediately capped with stoppers, and

aseptic techniques were used during sampling. The samples were kept cool and delivered
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immediately to the laboratory. The total coliform test is a primary indicator of potable water

suitable for drinking purposes. It estimates the numbers of faecal coliforms (E. coli) and other

types of bacteria in 100 mL of water and is expressed in colony forming units (CFU)/100 mL of

water.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Contamination sources

To investigate water contamination in the study area, all sources of domestic wastewater (raw

sewage), agriculture pollutants, and industrial pollutants were studied (Fig. 3). Many different

contamination sources were observed within the study area, and most consisted of municipal

wastewater (sewage discharges; Fig. 3A). There was evidence of both point and non-point

pollution sources in the study area. The point sources were fairly easy to recognize because the

wastewater was discharged above ground and then was allowed to seep into nearby surface

waters.

Figure 3. Field photographs showing various types of wastewater effluents: (A) sewage

discharge (green colour refers to algae cover), (B) surface water (Qus canal) contamination, (C)

Paper Factory Lake, (D) sugarcane factory wastewater discharge into the Nile.

4.1.1. Domestic sources

As a high-density residential area with no sewer access, people in the study area construct pit

latrines (single-chamber) built of red brickwork in their homes; thus, the main contamination

source was on-site sewage discharge processes. These latrines are constructed in such a way that
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wastewater is allowed to percolate from the bottoms and walls, and higher permeability soils

suggests that more percolation will take place, thus resulting in high rates of loading of toxic

constituents and bacteria to groundwater. The amount of wastewater discharged depends on the

total amount of domestic water consumption and the population density of the city.

In the study area, the total domestic water consumption amounted to 25,000 m³/d. Qus’s

drinking water network receives most of its water from the Nile River, which is the main source

for the water supply, and there are also two municipal well facilities (the El-Maara and El-

Maseed deep wells). Other deep wells are installed in many places in the study area in the areas

that are not serviced by the water network. Qus’s drinking water network has old pipes that are

˃20 years old. It was poorly designed, and daily interruptions and losses of water occur; breaks

in the pipes increase the probability of water contamination. The majority of this water is

artificially recharged into the ground as sewage-laden with pollutants, and such discharges cause

waterlogging and groundwater and surface water contamination.

As a result of rising groundwater levels, the pit latrines can become filled with sewage water,

and at times, raw sewage has poured out into the streets (Fig. 3A). Wastewater is also transported

by vehicles in large quantities to nearby irrigation canals (e.g., the El-Gamalia, El-Maara, and

Qus canals) and drains. Sometimes it is moved to the neighbouring cultivated areas without any

control from the City Council (about 150,000 people live around these canals, and the majority

of them discharge their raw sewage directly into them). The most affected parts are confined to

the city centre, especially in Ewadate, Shaareen, and El-Fashawna areas (Fig. 3A), and some

scattered points of impact can also be found in the western parts around the Paper Factory Lake.

This was confirmed from the results of the chemical and bacteriological analyses, where the

main pollutants detected in sewage wastewater contained organic material (microbial pathogens),
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nitrogen-based compounds, and trace elements, all of which may negatively impact human

health.

4.1.2. Agricultural sources

The city is surrounding by agriculture, and intense yearlong agricultural practices take place,

especially in the sugarcane fields that are located in close vicinity to the houses. Excessive use of

artificial fertilizers along with flash irrigation techniques (two to three times a month) result in

non-point sources of contamination from irrigation-return flows. Improper usage of

agrochemicals, fertilizers, and manure in agricultural areas is the main source of nitrate

contamination. Commonly used fertilizers include urea, calcium nitrate, ammonium nitrate,

ammonium sulfate, and superphosphate. The major types of pollutants that can be expected in

agricultural drains are salts, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), pesticide residues, pathogens,

toxic inorganic compounds, and organic compounds; their adverse impacts on groundwater may

accumulate over time. The presence of nitrate above the permissible level set by the WHO and

the Egyptian Higher Committee for Water (EHCW) may be due to the high use of fertilisers in

neighboring agricultural fields and/or from seepage from the on-site sewage discharge processes.

4.1.3. Industrial sources

There is not much industrial activity in the study area, and the main sources of industrial

pollution are the Paper Factory and Sugar Factory (Figs. 3C and D), located in the northwest part

of the study area. These factories discharge their effluents following little to no treatment into the

Nile or to lakes. The main pollutants from the Sugar Factory include organic matter high in

carbohydrates; those from the Paper Factory include bagasse, oils, and grease. The discharged
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wastewater from the Paper Factory has a high chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical

oxygen demand (BOD).

The Paper Factory discharges liquid industrial wastes into a poorly protected lake (sample

No. 43; Fig. 3C), which is situated close to the Nile. The chemical reactions among these

pollutants generate a variety of toxic substances. The factory discharges approximately 20,000

3
m /d of wastewater into the lake and the Nile. Various raw materials including bagasse are used

for paper production, and these materials are treated physically and chemically to eliminate

lignins and produce white paper. Industrial wastewater containing various pollutants may

infiltrate underground and reach the groundwater causing severe contamination.

4.2. Groundwater level and flow

Measurements of the water table depth within 33 groundwater wells have been carried out,

and water levels were calculated. The water table varies from 63 to 75 m (amsl) in much of the

study area (Table 2). The depth to water was ~1 m below the ground in the low-lying

southeastern parts, and it increased in the western parts of the Nile River to ~12 m. The

differences between the very shallow and shallow water table levels reflect the variation in the

ground surfaces and the location of the sand bed below a sequence of alternating clay–silt and/or

fill deposits. Based on the analysis of the water table, a gradual decrease in the northward and

westward directions was noticed. Thus, the general groundwater flow direction was from the

southeast to the northwest towards the Nile, with anomalies in some regions, especially in the

city centre. As the groundwater level ranged from very shallow to shallow below the ground

surface in some areas, waterlogging was observed when the amount of discharged wastewater

exceeded the infiltration capacity of the top layer (clay–silt and/or fill deposits).
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4.3. Major hydrochemical parameters

The most important physicochemical parameters including pH, EC, total hardness (TH),

- 2- -
TDS, Cl , SO4 , NO3 , Pb, Cd, Zn, Fe, Mn, Cr, and SiO 2 were determined in surface and

groundwater (Table 2) as pollution indicators. Areal geographic information system (GIS)

distribution maps of these parameters were prepared by using ArcGIS software with the kriging

interpolation method.

4.3.1. Temperature and pH (T and pH)

As shown in Table 2, the groundwater temperature ranged from 15.6 to 26.9°C with an

average of 23.1°C, while the surface water temperature ranged between 15.6 and 23°C with an

average of 18.2°C. The pH values of groundwater samples ranged from 7.1 to 8.2 with an

average of 7.6, and thus, the data were reflective of neutral to slightly alkaline conditions. The

surface water pH values varied between 7.8 and 9.2 with an average of 8.3, which is indicative of

mildly alkaline water. These pH values might have been due to the high content of base

compounds such as calcium bicarbonate.

4.3.2. Redox potential (ORP)

The redox value in groundwater ranged from 29 to 311 mV with an average of 113 mV. The

high ORP values observed in very shallow wells are reflective of oxic conditions, and the lowest

value was observed close to the city centre. In surface water, redox values varied between 43 to

302 mV with an average of 134.5 mV. The lowest value was observed in sample No. 39, which

was collected close to the downstream part of the Qus canal. This value reflects reducing
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conditions due to discharges of raw sewage into the canal and the accumulation of algae. Under

reducing conditions, nitrate undergoes denitrification, and this coincides with high iron and

manganese contents (Table 2). The highest ORP value was observed in sample No. 41, which

was collected close to the upstream part of the Qus canal and away from the city centre; this

value reflects oxic conditions, and such conditions are present because of the continuous

recharge from the Nile (Fig. 4).

4.3.3. Electrical conductivity (EC)

In groundwater, EC and TDS values exceeded those of surface water because of water-rock

interactions as well as the anthropogenic inputs. The EC of groundwater varied between 385 and

4620 µS/cm with an average of 1719 µS/cm. Some wells with high salinity values were located

close to the city centre (Fig. 4). These were largely impacted by anthropogenic sources, primarily

by domestic and industrial wastewater effluents. For surface water, the EC values ranged from

272 to 2311 µS/cm with an average of 751 µS/cm; these values were lower than the mean values

in groundwater. The Paper Factory Lake (sample No. 43; Fig. 4) had a high EC value of 2311

µS/cm because of the discharge of many industrial and chemical wastes into the lake. High ions

contents in the water cause the water to be corrosive, and scale formation can occur.

4.3.4. Total hardness (TH)

Total hardness of the collected samples was calculated based on Todd (1980), and the data were

compared with ASTM (1976) classification levels. The predominant class (29 samples, 88%) of total

hardness in groundwater samples was the very hard class (>200 mg/L), and the rest (4 samples,

12%) ranked at the moderately hard level (101–200 mg/L) (Fig. 4). The high values
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- 2
of total hardness may have been due to the dissolution of HCO3 , SO4 , and the alkaline

features of the soils. Out of the 12 surface water samples, 6 samples (50%) were classified into

the very hard class, 5 samples (42%) were classified into the moderately hard class, and only 1

sample was classified into the slightly hard class (56–100 mg/L).

- 2-
4.3.5. Chloride and sulfate (Cl and SO4 )

Except for in saline and brackish water, the contents of chloride in natural water (which are
typically around 100 mg/L; Fetter, 1999) can be used as an indicator of anthropogenic
-
contamination. The Cl concentrations in groundwater varied from 21.0 to 192.7 mg/L with an

2-
average of 63 mg/L, and that of SO4 ranged from 6.3 to 557.5 mg/L with an average of 169

-
mg/L; thus, a wide range of variation was detected. In surface water, the Cl content ranged from

2-
19.6 to 72.9 mg/L with an average of 41.7 mg/L, while the SO4 content ranged from 13.2 to

- 2-
479.5 mg/L with an average of 100.4 mg/L. The highest Cl and SO4 contents in surface water
were recorded in sample No. 43, Paper Factory Lake (Fig. 4).
-
The measured Cl contents were under the recommended limits of WHO (2008) and EHCW
2-
(2007) (250 mg/L), and only three groundwater samples and one surface water sample had SO 4
contents above the permissible limit of 400 mg/L.
- 2-
Higher values of Cl and SO4 were recorded in the places where the dumping of sewage is

common and where animal wastes and fertilisers containing KCl and potassium sulfates are

2-
present; the significant positive correlation between Cl and SO 4 confirmed this proposition

(Fig. 4). Additional chloride sources may have been due to the dissolution of halite from water-

bearing formations. The increased concentrations of alkalis and chloride are indicative of the
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influence of mixing between natural water and wastewater leaking from the sewage ponds,

latrines, and cesspits.

2- -
The significant positive correlation between SO4 and Cl implies that they both originated

from conventional sources like human and animal wastes as well as fertilisers. Moreover, the

2- -
SO4 /Cl ratio in 55% of the water samples exceed unity, which might be an indicator of

contamination by sewage water; these samples were mostly concentrated close to the city centre.

-
4.3.6. Nitrate (NO3 )

Since nitrogenous materials are rare in the geological record, nitrate in groundwater is

usually due to anthropogenic activity; clean natural water typically contains ˂10 mg/L nitrate. In

the study area, the sources of nitrate included both diffuse and point sources. The nitrate

distribution map (Fig. 4) shows that nitrate concentrations in groundwater varied between 5.17

(well No. 7) and 96.11 mg/L (well No. 23) with an average of 38.7 mg/L. The lowest values were

detected in the northwestern and southwestern parts of the city, which might reflect that the

inputs were mainly in the form of ammonium and not nitrate; these data coincided with low ORP

values of 48 mV and higher Fe and Mn contents (Figs. 4 and 5). The highest values were

detected in the middle and northwestern parts of the city. These areas are enclosed by closely

spaced standing houses in the oldest and densely populated part of the city and agricultural lands

(Fig. 4). The nitrate content of the surface water ranged from 26.1 (sample No. 44, El-Gamalia

canal) to 97.4 mg/L (sample No. 39, Qus canal) with an average of 53.4 mg/L. The raw sewage

discharged from the oldest and highly populated part (Fig. 4) was likely behind the high value

recorded in the Qus canal. Of the 33 wells, 10 samples (30%), and of the 12 surface water

samples, 6 samples (50%), exceeded the limit of 50 mg/L set for drinking water by the WHO and
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EHCW, but the samples were still under the allowable limit of 135 mg/L for irrigation water. The

high nitrate values could be partly the result of organic sources (sewage wastewater and manure

applications) and inorganic sources (improper use of nitrogenous fertilizers in the agricultural

lands of poor quality).

2- - -
Figure 4. GIS spatial distributions of SO4 , Cl , NO3 , EC, ORP, and TH in the study area.

4.3.7. Trace elements

Trace elements including Pb, Cd, Zn, Fe, Mn, and Cr were detected in surface and

groundwater samples in the study area. The concentrations in some samples were at

concentrations more than the allowable limit for drinking water and irrigation purposes

according to the WHO (2008) and USEPA (1994) based on their toxicity and bio-accumulative

nature (Fig. 5; Table 2). Lead contents in groundwater varied between 0.001 and 0.025 mg/L

with an average of 0.01 mg/L. Lead values exceeded the maximum contaminant level for

drinking water set by WHO (0.01 mg/L) in 40% of the samples, but the values were less than the

standard for irrigation water (5 mg/L). For surface water, Pb contents were higher compared to

that of the groundwater, and they varied between 0.003 and 0.18 mg/L with an average value of

0.011 mg/L. The highest value was observed in sample No. 43 from the Paper Factory Lake (Fig.

5; Table 2). Elevated Pb concentrations may reflect the seepage of wastewater and the leaching

of fertilisers into the aquifer. Lead is toxic in small concentrations, and Pb can be especially

harmful when it exceeds the recommended limit of 0.015 mg/L (WHO) in drinking water. Lead

can cause anaemia, lethargy, and abdominal pain along with delays in physical or mental

development for infants and children, and kidney problems and high blood pressure for adults
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(USEPA, 1994; WHO, 2008). Cadmium contents in groundwater varied from 0.001 to 0.015

mg/L with an average 0.005 mg/L, while those in surface water varied from 0.001 to 0.012 mg/L

with an average of 0.006 mg/L. Rocks mined for phosphate fertilisers contain varying amounts

of Cd. Cadmium is very toxic, and elevated concentrations may cause liver and kidney damage

(0.003 mg/L; WHO, 2008). Zinc values in groundwater ranged from 0.002 to 1.25 mg/L with an

average of 0.26 mg/L, and those in surface water ranged from 0.002 to 1.11 mg/L with an

average of 0.422 mg/L. Zinc contents in most wells, as well as in the surface water samples, was

high compared to the recommended values for drinking water and for irrigation purposes (2

mg/L). The highest Zn content was observed in sample No. 43, Paper Factory Lake, and this was

due to the accumulation of the solid and industrial wastewater discharged (Fig. 5; Table 2). Zinc

in drinking water does not readily cause ill effects, but it can impart a metallic taste to the water

or a milky appearance at levels around 3 mg/L (WHO, 2008).

Iron contents in groundwater varied from 0.012 to 0.284 mg/L with an average of 0.125

mg/L, while the values in surface water varied from 0.011 to 0.121 mg/L with an average of

0.044 mg/L. High Fe contents in water can stain laundry and contribute to clogged pipes and

well openings (0.3 mg/L; USEPA, 1994). Manganese was less abundant in the groundwater than

iron, and the Mn contents of the groundwater ranged from 0.001 to 0.283 mg/L with an average

of 0.106 mg/L, while the values for surface water ranged from 0.001 to 0.091 mg/L with an

average of 0.02 mg/L. Similarly, the high Mn contents might have been due to the sewage

disposal practices, the use of pesticides on older croplands, and industrial wastewater discharges

from the Paper Factory. As shown on Figure 5 the highest Fe and Mn contents were observed in

the northwestern and eastern parts of the city. High Mn contents in water can cause a bitter

metallic taste, and the water may be black to brown; Mn also leaves grey stains on porcelain and
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fabrics and contributes to clogged pipes and wells (0.5 mg/L; WHO, 2008). The presence of

dissolved Fe and Mn in groundwater is mainly controlled by the availability of low ORP values

(˂200 mV). Degradation of infiltrated organic wastes in surface and groundwater results in the

depletion of the dissolved oxygen. The Fe-rich and Mn-rich reduced zones in this study

coincided quite well with the relatively low nitrate and redox values, which was likely due to

denitrification reactions (Table 2). Chromium sources in groundwater were likely from the

sewage sludge and the use of organic fertilisers (manure) in agriculture areas (Deutsch, 1997).

Chromium concentrations in groundwater samples varied between 0.001 and 0.082 mg/L with an

average of 0.03 mg/L (Fig. 5; Table 2). In surface water, the Cr values ranged between 0.026 and

0.114 mg/L. High Cr contents above the WHO guideline (0.05 mg/L) were detected in well No.

14 and in surface water sample No. 43, Paper Factory Lake, which might have been due to the

accumulation of the industrial wastewater discharged. One potential impact of high Cr levels is

acute toxicity to plants and animals. Drinking water with high levels of Cr (0.05 mg/L) over long

periods of time can lead to cancer, while lower doses may irritate the gastrointestinal mucus

(Kaufman and Dinicola, 1970; WHO, 2008). According to the spatial distribution map (Fig. 5)

for the detected heavy metals, except for Fe and Mn, the highest values were observed in the

western and central parts of the city.

Figure 5. GIS spatial distributions of heavy metals Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn, Cd, and Cr in the study area.

The presence of trace elements with remarkable concentrations in surface and groundwater

might be related to the disposal of wastewater, especially from industrial and sewage sources into

the groundwater or the canals and drains.

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Silicon in natural water is usually present as silicon dioxide, SiO 2, or its hydrated form, Si

(OH) 4. As much as 60% of the Earth’s crust is composed of silicate minerals; therefore, silica

constitutes the bulk of rocks, soils, clays, and sands (Khan et al., 2015). For groundwater, the

average silica content is typically 17 mg/L, and for stream water, the content is typically about

14 mg/L. Dissolved silica in natural water is related to the weathering of silicate minerals.

In groundwater samples, SiO2 contents ranged between 2.4 and 25 mg/L with an average of

14.9 mg/L. Surface water samples exhibited low silica contents in comparison to groundwater

samples, and these samples ranged between 0.8 and 9.4 mg/L (the high concentration was for

sample No. 43, Paper Factory Lake) with an average of 2.3 mg/L. The long-term water-rock

interactions in the groundwater aquifer were behind the higher silica contents in groundwater

compared to surface water, but the dilution effect by water flowing in canals and in drains likely

played a key role.

4.4. Mixing of wastewater with groundwater

-
Relationship of Ca with HCO3 : Unaffected groundwater is classified as a bicarbonate water

-
type, with HCO3 concentrations varying from 7 to 11 meq/L and Ca concentrations varying

-
from 9 to 16 meq/L. On the other hand, wastewater is carbonate-poor water with HCO 3 and Ca

contents ranging between 4–4.2 meq/L and 2.6–3 meq/L, respectively. These two water types are
assumed to represent end-members of a mixed system (Domínguez-Mariani et al., 2004). Figure

-
6a shows that values of HCO 3 and Ca in the wastewater samples were adversely affected by

wastewater infiltration, as indicated by the by the random distribution of the water points that
reflect different chemical compositions. The plot (Fig. 6a) suggests that the sampling points were
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located between surface wastewater and natural, unaffected groundwater values, thus defining a

mixing trend.

- -
Figure 6. Scatter plots of (a) HCO3 versus Ca and (b) SiO2 versus Cl in the study area.

The severely contaminated zone (Fig. 6a) included seven surface water points from the El-

Maara and Qus canals and two samples from the El-Gamalia canal, and the results strongly

support the conclusion that direct raw sewage disposal influenced the water quality in these

canals. Two very shallow groundwater wells (No. 5 and 7) were located in this zone, and here,

wastewater predominantly influenced the groundwater. This shows that the interaction between

wastewater and surface and groundwater plays a major role in the contamination process, mainly

through wastewater infiltration. Thus, the major contributors of major ions, nitrates, heavy

metals, and bacteria to surface and groundwater were from raw sewage disposal practices,

agricultural runoff, and industrial activities.

-
Relationship of SiO2 with and Cl : Chloride acts as a reactive tracer and moves freely in

groundwater as large-sized ions; specifically, it does not readily adsorb onto mineral surfaces nor

enter rock-forming minerals, and it does not participate in ion exchange processes (Khan et al.,

2015). Therefore, high chloride concentrations in groundwater can undoubtedly be used as

valuable indicators of anthropogenic impacts. Meanwhile, SiO2 enters the groundwater mainly

-
from water-rock interactions (Hem, 1985). Accordingly, SiO2 versus Cl plots (see Fig. 6b) can

be used to assess the contributions of anthropogenic and geogenic processes to the groundwater

chemistry.
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-
In the plot of SiO2 versus Cl (Fig. 6b), three distinguished groups were identified. Group (I)
consisted of four very shallow groundwater wells where the water depth was ˂3.5 m, and this
-
group had low SiO2 contents (˂4 mg/L) and high Cl contents (up to 200 mg/L) reflective of
-
anthropogenic contamination. Group (II) contained the majority of the samples with Cl contents

that progressively increased from 25 to 165 mg/L and almost constant SiO2 values (15 to 17
-
mg/L). This indicates that the bulk of the Cl content was acquired by processes (anthropogenic)

other than those responsible for the acquisition of SiO 2 (geogenic). Group (III) contained four

samples clusters, and the results exhibit comparatively high SiO 2 contents (20–25 mg/L) together
- -
with low Cl contents (˂50 mg/L), which suggests that the bulk of Cl was acquired through
geogenic processes (rock-water interactions) and not anthropogenic processes in these locations.
-
SiO2–Cl and HCO3–Ca data provided clear evidence that the role of water-rock interaction
process was relatively less significant than anthropogenic processes in terms of the water
chemistry in the study area.

4.5. Water bacteriological characteristics

For the bacteriological analyses, total coliforms, faecal coliforms, Salmonella, Pseudomonas,

and Klebsiella were examined at selected water points (Table 3). The presence of faecal coliform

bacteria indicates that a faecal source was present, likely from the mixing of domestic

wastewater, cesspools leaking, and/or sewage discharges into surface and groundwater. Such data

indicate that pathogenic organisms may be present, which could be capable of causing diseases

that represent severe and even deadly health concerns. Bacteriological examination in the forms

of E. coli and total coliforms indicated that there was great variation in the spatial distribution of

the coliform counts. The optimal pH values for bacterial growth are 6–8 (for
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neutrophilic bacteria), whereas extremely acidic or basic environments tend to prevent bacterial

growth. In the study area, pH values of groundwater were 7.1–8.2 with an average of 7.6, and

such pH values represent suitable environments for bacterial growth. Out of 17 shallow wells, 10

wells (59%) along with all the surface water points (100%) had significant counts of faecal

coliforms, which are facultative aerobic organisms (Fig. 7; Table 3). The results showed that all

surface and groundwater samples had total coliform levels that exceeded the recommended limit

of 0 CFU/100 mL of sample (Table 3).

Table 3. Results of the bacteriological analysis (count CFU/100 ml) of selected 17

groundwater and 8 surface water samples, SW (sewage water from El-Salhiya sewage treatment

plant at Qena).

Figure 7. GIS spatial distributions of faecal coliform and total coliform in the study area.

In groundwater, the highest count of bacterial contamination was observed in well No. 12

(112 fecal and 270 total coliforms), which is where sewage and wastewater discharges with high

organic matter content accumulate. The minimum count (0 faecal and 8 total coliforms) was

observed in well No. 2. In surface water, the highest bacterial count (224 fecal and 965 total

coliform) was observed in sample No. 38, which was collected close to the downstream part of

the Qus canal and in the southern portion of the city center (Fig. 7). This may have been due to

heavy discharges of raw sewage and algae accumulation. The lowest bacterial count (39 faecal

and 78 total coliforms) was observed in sample No. 41, which was collected in the upstream part

of the Qus canal; this may have been due to the continuous recharge from the Nile. Similar

trends were observed for the ORP values (Tables 2 and 3). Accordingly, proper sanitary
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protections should be provided when production wells are constructed to reduce or minimize the

impacts of bacteriological contamination. The presence of coliform bacteria indicates that the

water may be contaminated with organisms that can cause disease. The faecal and total coliform

counts in the sewage water of the El-Salhiya sewage treatment plant at Qena, north of Qus City,

were 106,000 and 1,800,000 CFU/100 mL, respectively. According to the WHO guideline for

drinking water, the total and faecal coliform count should be 0 CFU/100 mL, while no more than

200 faecal coliforms/100 mL of water should be present in areas where recreational activities

take place. Water boiling and/or chlorination are common disinfection techniques for water

contaminated with coliform bacteria. From the above results, only the water from the deep wells

and the established network is recommended for drinking in the study area.

4.6. GIS-based risk map

Surface water resources in the study area are highly impacted, as shown from the above

discussions, and therefore, a contamination risk map was constructed for the groundwater

samples to help protect potable water supplies. The risk map was based on six major water

-
pollution indicators (NO3 , Pb, Cr, Cd, faecal coliform, and total coliform), and these data were

integrated into the GIS along with land-use and possible contaminant source information. For

each pollution indicator, a GIS thematic layer was created (Fig. 8) to extrapolate the areas with

different risk classes (Fig. 9). Four different classes on the risk map were assumed based on the

maximum allowable levels (MAL) set by the WHO and EHCW and the obtained values from the

chemical and bacteriological analyses. For example, the nitrate content was classified into four

risk classes as follows: class 1: ˃45 mg/L, high; class 2: 20–45 mg/L, moderate; class 3: 10–20

mg/L, low; and class 4: ˂10 mg/L, very low. In the case of faecal and total coliform, bacterial
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counts were divided into the following categories: ˃50 CFU/100 mL, high; 10–50 CFU/100 mL,

moderate; 0–10 CFU/100 mL, low; and 0.0 CFU/100 mL, very low.

-
Figure 8. GIS thematic maps for NO3 , Pb, Cr, Cd, faecal coliform, and total coliform.

Areas of high contamination risk (39,3% of the area; these sites were located in the western,

northeastern, and central parts) were detected in locations where intensive wastewater is

discharged from various sources; thus, strict measures to prevent or minimize the groundwater

contamination are urgently needed in these areas. Areas of moderate risk were also common

(36.3%) along the northwestern, southern, and eastern parts of the study area. Low and very low

risk zones amounted to only 13.3% and 11.1%, respectively, of the study area, and these few

sites were mainly located in the southeastern part of the study area.

Figure 9. GIS risk map for the study area.

Based on the analysis of the risk map, a major portion of the study area is in high and

moderate risk contamination zones, and only a smaller portion in the southeast can be classified

as low and very low-risk zones. Accordingly, the aquifer is under stress from contamination, and

the shallow water table and the absence of a formal sanitation network are exacerbating the

problems in this region. The validity and accuracy of the resulting risk map was verified against

available hydrogeological data, field observations, and the locations of existing sewage and

wastewater infrastructure. This risk map should be a useful tool for prioritizing mitigation

activities in the future.

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5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Potential physicochemical and bacteriological hazards in a shallow unconfined aquifer and

surface water were evaluated by screening 45 water samples. The detected threats in the study

area arose mainly from anthropogenic activities, especially the leakage of sewage, irrigation-

- 2-
return flows, and/or industrial wastewater discharges. The contents of nutrients, Cl , SO4 , heavy

metals, and bacterial loads in many samples were above the WHO and EHCW standards.
-
Results showed that 52% of the examined groundwater samples had concentrations of NO 3 ,

- 2-
trace metals, Cl , and SO4 that were higher than the recommended maximum permissible

levels. Effluents from domestic and industrial wastewaters and irrigation-return flow laden with

chemical fertilisers from nearby agricultural areas might be behind these high contents. As

-
indicated by the HCO3 versus Ca plot, the majority of groundwater samples (94%) fell in the

wastewater and groundwater mixing zone. Meanwhile, the remaining groundwater samples (6%)

along with 58% of the surface water samples fell in the severely contaminated zone. The SiO 2

-
versus Cl plot revealed anthropogenic impacts in the form of mixing between wastewater and

groundwater. Results showed that faecal coliforms are problematic in 59% of the groundwater

samples and 100% of the surface water samples, and all samples contained total coliforms. The

high bacterial loads confirm that the contamination is from the anthropogenic activities in the

-
form of sewage effluents. Six major water pollution indicators (NO 3 , Pb, Cr, Cd, faecal

coliform, and total coliform) were used to create six thematic maps, which were processed into a

risk map. According to the risk map, four main contamination zones (high, moderate, low, and

very low) within the aquifer were identified. The majority of the study area (75.6%) was

classified as “moderate” to “high” risk, and these locations occupied the western, northeastern,
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and central parts of the study area, which suffer from heavy sewage and industrial effluents. Low

and very low-risk zones for aquifer contamination occupied only 24.4% of the study area along

the northwestern and southeastern parts.

The risk map was verified with hydrogeological, field, and laboratory data. As indicated

above, the most impacted parts were at or near the city centre in areas that suffer from heavy

sewage and industrial effluents. Results confirmed that, because of improper wastewater disposal

practices, surface and groundwater resources are at a relatively high risk for contamination.

Thus, future mitigation efforts will be needed to protect the water resources in this region.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to acknowledge the Journal Editor and the

anonymous reviewers for helpful advice and suggestions. The authors would like to extend their

sincere appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud University for its funding

through Research group (RG-1437-012).

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Abd El-Moneim, A., 1988. Hydrogeological Conditions of the Nile Valley at Sohag Province.

MSc. Thesis, Sohag Faculty of Science, Assiut University.

Abdel-Shafy, H., Abdel-Sabour, F., 2006. Wastewater reuse for irrigation on the desert sandy soil

of Egypt: Long-term effect. In: Hlavinek, P., et al. (Eds.), Integrated Urban Water Resources

Management, Springer, The Netherlands, pp. 301–312.