Longspanstructures Final 161012041755

Long Span Structures
Rasika Dongare Garima Rajput

Aishwarya Khurana Rithika Ravishankar
Nilesh Mane Roshani Tamkhade
Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames
Long span structures create unobstructed, column-free spaces greater than 30 metres (100 feet) for a
variety of functions.
Visibility Flexibility Large Scale Storage
Auditoriums Exhibition halls

Aircraft hangars
Stadiums Manufacturing facilities

for
Long Span
Buildings
Subject to Funicular
Bending Structures
Both tensile and Pure tension or

compressive forces pure compression
1. Girder 1. Parabolic Arch

2. Truss (Depth 2. Tunnel vault
to span ratio 3. Domes
– 1:5 to 1:15) 4. Cable stayed
3. Two-way grid roof
4. Two-way truss 5. Bicycle wheel
5. Space truss 6. Warped tension
(Depth to surfaces
span ratio –
1:35 to 1:40)

for
Long Span
Buildings
Subject to Funicular
Bending Structures
Both tensile and Pure tension or

compressive forces pure compression
1. Girder Pure Compression:

2. Two-way grid 1. Parabolic Arch
3. Truss (Depth 2. Tunnel vault
to span ratio 3. Domes
– 1:5 to 1:15)
4. Two-way truss Pure Tension:
5. Space truss 1. Cable stayed
(Depth to roof
span ratio – 2. Bicycle wheel
1:35 to 1:40) 3. Warped tension
surfaces

Some of the oldest long span structures
Historydated
and Evolution
back to the Roman civilization.
However, most long-span buildings then
were single level constructed using vaults
and domes.
By the late 20th century, durable upper

limits of span were established for these
types:
the largest covered stadium had a span of
204 meters (670 feet),
the largest exhibition hall had a span of

216 meters (710 feet),
and the largest commercial fixed-wing

aircraft had a 75–80 meter (250–266
foot) span hangar.
The major evolution in long span section-

active structures has occurred in the
aspect of shift from in-situ to precast
construction.
Old-to-New long span structures
with their height and spans

Another method of classification of long span structures is
as follows
Form - Active Section - Active Vector - Active Surface - Active
Systems of flexible, Systems of rigid, Systems of short, Systems of flexible

non-rigid matter, in solid, linear solid, straight lineal or rigid planes able
which the elements, in which members, in which to resist tension,
redirection of forces redirection of forces the redirection of compression or
is effected by is effected by forces is effected by shear, in which the
particular form mobilization of vector partition, i.e. redirection of
design and sectional forces by multidirectional forces is effected
characteristic form splitting of single by mobilization of
stabilization force simply to sectional forces
tension or
compressive
elements
Cable Structures Plate Structures
Beam Structures Flat Trusses
Tent Structures Folded Structures
Framed structures Curved Trusses
Pneumatic structures Shell structures
Slab structures Space Trusses
Arch structures

Introduction >30 meters
Beams greater than 30 meters in span are
said to be LONG SPAN BEAMS.
The use of long span beams results in a

range of benefits, including flexible,
column free internal spaces, reduced
foundation costs, and reduced steel
erection times.
Many long span solutions are also well

adapted to facilitate the integration of
services without increasing the overall
floor depth. Conventional beam Long span beam
The design of long span steel and (steel -

concrete) composite beams is generally
carried out in accordance with the IS.

Types
Most common type of long span beams used today are: Plate Girders, and Beams with Web Openings.
The popular construction methodology is composite construction (steel + concrete)
The types of long span beams are:
1. Parallel beam approach

The parallel beam approach is
effective for spans up to around 14
m. Floor grids comprise two layers
of fully continuous beams running
in orthogonal directions. Services
running in either direction can be
integrated within these two layers,
so that services passing in any
direction can be accommodated
within the structural floor depth. A
further benefit is that, being fully
continuous, the depth of the beams
themselves is reduced without
incurring the expense and
complexity of rigid, full strength
connections .
Types
2. Composite Beam with Web openings

Web openings are typically formed
in beams to allow services to pass
through the beam, reducing the
effective overall depth of floor
construction for a given spanning
capability or for aesthetic reasons
Span: 10 to 16 m.
The alternative way of forming the

web openings is simply to cut them
into the plate used to form the web
of a plate girder, or the web of a
rolled section.
Failure
The openings introduce a number in
of potential failure modes not cellular
found in solid web beams. Large beam
openings may require stiffening to
avoid instability (buckling) of the
web posts.
Introduction

Failure in cellular beam
With stiffened web openings

Types
3. Tapered Girders
Tapered girders can be a cost
effective solution in the span
range 10 m to 20 m.
They are another solution that
allows services to be
accommodated within the
structural floor zone.
The depth of the girder

increases towards mid-span,
where applied moments are
greatest, and thereby
facilitating hanging services
under the shallower regions
near the beam supports. It is
also possible to form web
openings in tapered girders in
regions of low shear, towards
mid-span. These provide more
options for service integration .
Types
4. Stub girders
Stub girders are a Vierendeel
form of truss. The bottom
chord is typically formed from
a shallow open section (H-
beam), on which sit short
lengths (stubs) of deeper I-
sections.
The number of
elements/surfaces associated
with a stub girder may increase
the cost of fire protection
compared with simpler
solutions.
Spans in excess of 20 m can be

economically achieved.
Services and/or secondary
beams can pass through the
gaps between the beam stubs,
reducing overall construction
Types
5. Haunched Composite beams

Haunches may be added at the
ends of a composite beam to
provide moment continuity.
The stiffness and strength of the
connections mean that the rest
of the span can be shallower
(the bending moment diagram
is 'lifted' and the effective
stiffness of the beam
substantially increased), and
services passed under it. In
buildings where the services are
likely to need frequent
replacement (for example in
hospitals ), hanging the services
under the beams can be
advantageous.
Spans in excess of 20 m can

readily be achieved.
Types
6. Composite trusses
Composite trusses, which use the
concrete slab as the upper chord
in the final state, can achieve
spans in excess of 20 m. This
means they have been used when
very long spanning capability was
needed. The main disadvantages
are that during the construction
phase the truss may be rather
flexible (laterally), and that in the
final state the costs of fire
protection can be high given the
large number of surfaces to
protect. Clearly one of the prices
to pay for the spanning ability is
that fabrication cost is higher than
for a plain beam. Services can be
passed through the gaps between
the truss members to reduce
overall floor depth.
Construction drawingsPrecast concrete beam sections

Materials
Timber, Laminated Timber Reinforced Concrete Metal

Glue-laminated timber can be (In - situ / Precast) Structural steel
prefabricated using metal
connectors into trusses that span
(Cut on site / Prefabricated)
Bending structures originally developed for
up to 45 metres (150 feet)
bridges, such as plate girders and trusses,
Most economical forms: the pure
are used in long-span buildings. Plate
compression shapes of the
girders are welded from steel plates to
multiple-arch vault, with spans up
make I beams that are deeper than the
to 93 metres (305 feet), and ribbed
standard rolled shapes and that can span
domes, with spans up to 107
up to 60 metres (200 feet)
metres (350 feet).
Used as industrial storage
buildings for corrosive materials
Case study: Failure Cleddau Bridge
• The Cleddau Bridge is a toll bridge

on the A477 road that spans the
River Cleddau between Neyland
and Pembroke Dock, Wales.
• Errors in the box girder design

caused it to collapse during its
construction in 1970.

• It failed during its erection by cantilevering segments of the span, out from the piers.
• The bridge was designed as a single continuous box girder of welded steel.
• The span that collapsed was the second one on the south side. The boxes were fabricated in
sections and moved over the previously built sections, aligned in place and welded.
• The collapse occurred when the last section of box for the second span was being moved out along
the cantilever.
• This section slid forward down the cantilever buckled, at the support and collapsed into the river
(Fig 2), killing four men, including the site-engineer.
• Investigation of collapse showed that the collapse was due to the buckling of the diaphragm at the
support (i.e., at the root of the second span being erected).
• The diaphragm was torn away from the sloping web near the bottom. This caused reduction in the
lever arm between flanges resisting negative bending moment at the support.
• The tendency of the bottom flange

to buckle was inevitably increased
by the reduction of the distance
between the flanges, as this
increased the force needed in each
flange to carry the moment with
the reduced lever arm.
• The support diaphragm was, in

effect, a transverse plate girder,
which carried heavy loads from
the webs of the plate girder at its
extreme ends and was supported
by the bearings as shown in Fig 3.

Modern Techniques For Long Span Beams –
Precast Concrete
PRECAST BRIDGES
• BENEFITS TO OWNER
o Reduction in the duration of work zones
o Reduced traffic handling costs
o Reduced accident exposure risks
o Less inconvenience to the traveling public
• BENEFITS TO OWNER
o Reduced exposure to hazards
o Reduced accident exposure risks
o Fewer weather delays
o Lower costs

Benefits of using precast concrete beams
Quality and Corrosion Resistance Immediate Delivery and Erection No Curing Time

Cross – over 1 Long Span Beam + Truss
Typical multi girder system with x-type Curved roof trusses can be used to support structural decks
intermediate cross frames and stay-in-place with a suspended ceiling. The natural open web of the steel
formwork used for constructing a deck-slab truss allows for the simple passage of services.
Long Span Beams + Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Long Span Trusses
Introduction
• A roof truss is a structure that includes one or multiple triangular units that include straight
slender members with their ends connected via nodes.
• Trusses are frame works in which the members are subjected to essentially axial forces due to
externally applied load.
• Bending leads to compression in the top chords (or horizontal members), tension in the bottom
chords, and either tension or compression in the vertical and diagonal members, depending on
their orientation.
External loads on the nodes Tension & Compression members

Categories Pitched Roof Truss
• A pitched roof truss has a bottom

chord with two inclined top chord
connected through gusset plates or
panels. Extra supports in the form of
struts are also added as per the
requirement.
•These trusses have a greater depth at Pitched roof truss
mid-span.

Categories Parallel Chord truss
• A pitched roof truss has a

bottom chord and a top chord
that run parallel to each other.
Extra supports in the form of
struts are also added as per the
requirement.
Parallel chord truss

Types of trusses
King post truss:
A king post is a central vertical post used in

architectural or bridge designs, working in tension
to support a beam below from a truss apex above
Queen post truss:
A queen-post bridge has two uprights, placed

about one-third of the way from each end of the
truss. They are connected across the top by
a beam and use a diagonal brace between the
outer edges.

Types of trusses
Pratt truss:
•In Pratt trusses, the web members are arranged in

such a way that under gravity load the longer
diagonal members are under tension and the shorter
vertical members experience compression.
•These trusses can be used for spans that range

between 6-10m.
Howe truss:
•The converse of the Pratt is the Howe truss. This is

commonly used in light roofing so that the longer
diagonals experience tension under reversal of
stresses due to wind load.
•These trusses can be used for spans that range

between 6-30m.

Types of trusses
Fink truss:
Fink trusses are used for longer spans having high

pitch roof, since the web members in such truss are
sub-divided to obtain shorter members.
Fan truss:
Fan trusses are used when the rafter members of the

roof trusses have to be sub-divided into odd number
of panels.
Scissor truss:
Scissor roof truss can particularly be found in

cathedrals. The upside here is that the ceiling gets
vaulted and you receive more space in the attic.

Types of trusses
Warren girder:
•Parallel chord trusses uses webs of the same lengths

and thus reduce fabrication costs for very long spans.
•Modified Warren is used with additional verticals,

introduced in order to reduce the unsupported length
of compression chord members.
Lattice girder:
•It is commonly made using a combination of

structural sections connected with diagonal lacing.
This member is more correctly referred to as a laced
strut or laced tie.

Types of trusses
North light truss:
In the north light truss, skylights or openings are

provided to allow north light inside the structure.
Vierendeel truss:
The Vierendeel truss is a structure where the

members are not triangulated but form rectangular
openings, and is a frame with fixed joints that are
capable of transferring and resisting bending
moments.
K- type truss:
In the case of very deep and very shallow trusses it

may become necessary to use K patterns for web
members to achieve appropriate inclination of the
web members.

Load Analysis Types Of Loads
The following are the various types of

loads to be considered while
calculating the stresses.
• Dead Load
• Live Load
• Longitudinal Force
• Horizontal Forces
• Wind Load
• Seismic Load
Direction of load transfer in Trusses

Assumptions Behind Truss
Load Analysis Analysis
• Truss members are connected at

their ends only, and they are
connected by friction-less pins.
• So you don't have to consider any
secondary bending moment
induced do to force of friction.
• Truss is loaded only at joints.
• Weight of truss members can be
neglected, compared to load acting
on the truss.

Load analysis Nature Of Load In Truss Members
• Force developed in a truss member is

always axial. It can be either tensile,
or compressive.
• If a member is under tensile load, this
will be the direction of internal force
developed .
• So you can notice that, under tensile
load, internal force developed in the
member is directed away from the
joint.
• Similarly in case of compressive force,
the internal force developed in the
member is directed towards the joint.

Materials
Wood
Metal - Steel

Materials
Concrete – Precast /
Prestressed
Bamboo

Alternative Materials Bamboo connections
While bamboo has been used for

centuries, the traditional methods of
lashing bamboo together are not
appropriate for the design of long
span trusses.
• These lashed connections don’t fully

utilize the full strength of bamboo
member.
• They rely solely on friction, the load
transfer between members is limited
and thus structures require more
members to do the same job that
one could if it were well connected.
• Finally complex geometries with
many members framing into one
node or three dimensional space
frames are difficult if not impossible
to construct.
Long Span Beams Long Span TrussesTraditional Bamboo Connection

Portal Frames
Alternative Materials Bamboo connections
These connections solve the issues of

complex geometries by joining the
members at a central hub. While they
provide a standardized connection
throughout a project, they are not
readily available.
• Since all fibers in a bamboo run parallel
once a bolt is placed through it and the
connection loaded in tension, the bolt acts
like a wedge and splits the bamboo.
• Also the puncture allows moisture to enter
the culm and accelerate decay
• Based on the proprietary nature of the
hubs, their installation requirements, and
the desire to develop cost effective, simple
connections, the research focused on an
alternate connection type to eliminate
these challenges.
Long Span Beams Long Span TrussesModern Bamboo Connection
Portal Frames
Modern techniques Bamboo connections
• This connection requires filling several

hollow cells of the bamboo with concrete
and embedding a threaded rod.
• The new connection involves embedding a BAMBOO TRUSS
common steel reinforcing bar into a mortar
filled bamboo culm and fillet welding
several of these members to a steel gusset
plate.
• The inner surface of the bamboo is
roughened to provide a bond between the
mortar and the bamboo while avoiding
puncturing the member. STEEL GUSSET PLATE
• Because the rebar is embedded in mortar,
the load is transferred evenly across the
member’s cross section and can transfer
high axial loads to the bamboo.
• Finally, the incorporation of the steel
gusset plate makes the bamboo easy to
connect in any configuration desired
Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses
SECTION OF CONNECTION Portal Frames
Applications
Gatton Railway Bridge, Australia

Pratt truss design
Powerhouse roof, Boise

Fink truss design

Applications
Church roof, America

Scissor truss design
Industrial shed, England

North light truss design

Applications
Convention centre
Warren girder
Vierendeel bridge, Belgium

Vierendeel truss design

Advantages Roof
• Quick Installation- The primary advantage of a truss is

that it can be installed quickly and cost-effectively, even
even without heavy equipment to lift it into place.
• Increased Span- The unique properties of a triangular

object allow trusses to span across longer distances.
• Load Distribution- The shape of a triangle allows all of the

weight applied to the sides (or legs) to be redistributed
redistributed down and away from the centre. In trusses,
trusses, this transfers the entire weight of the roof to the
the outer walls.
• Accessibility- Since the bottom rail of a truss is typically

the ceiling of the rooms below, the triangular spaces of
of the trusses themselves form accessible paths for the
the installation of HVAC, electric and other utility
applications. The central void of a truss system is
generally the attic of a home, with the slope of the roof
roof forming the legs of the triangle.

Disadvantages Roof
• Transportation- Sometimes they are too big for a truck. In such

cases, specially designed truss trailers have to be used to haul the
structures around.
• Metal roofs-
I. Skilled labour is required to install metal roof trusses.
II. They are not energy efficient since they allow more heat to
from the structure.
III. When the metal is cut, drilled, scratched or welded, rust can
become a problem.
• Wooden roofs-
I. Wooden roofs are susceptible to fire.
II. Wood can rot or become infested with bugs if not maintained
treated properly.

Advantages Bridges
• They are light, but strong- As they use small

timbers or beams of metal, the trusses would
would be light, but are strong enough to
handle loads thanks to the ridged triangles.
• Accessibility- They allow placement of

roadways on the structure itself, such as a rail,
rail, to be placed straight across it.
• Material usage- Because of its design, it makes

good use of limited construction materials to
to achieve strength that far outweighs its cost.
cost.
• Can be constructed in difficult site conditions-

These types of bridges can be built quickly in
in places where many other types cannot,
linking areas that other types will not work in.

Disadvantages Bridges
• They require high costs- While it is said that these

bridges’ design efficiently uses materials, it does use a lot
a lot of them. Building a truss bridge can be costly, and
and its upkeep requires time and money.
• Wastage of materials- Without the proper design and

work practice, constructing a truss bridge can result to
to waste of materials.
• Maintenance- Because of the amount of materials they

use, these types of bridges require a lot of upkeep.
• Complicated Design-The design of truss bridges can

become very complicated depending on the situation.
situation. The triangles have to be the perfect size and
and there has to be the perfect amount in order for the
the truss bridge to be safe.

Case study

General Information Howrah Bridge
Howrah Bridge is a cantilever bridge

with a suspended span over the
Hooghly River in West Bengal, India.
• Address : West Bengal

• Total length : 705 m
• Opened : February 3, 1943
• Construction started : 1935
• Location : Howrah, Kolkata
• Architect : James Meadows
• Material : James Meadows

General Information Howrah Bridge
468 ft 564 ft 468 ft
280 ft
325 ft 1500 ft 325 ft
Anchor Arm Cantilever Arm Suspended Arm Cantilever Arm Anchor Arm
• Bridge type : Suspension type Balanced Cantilever

• Central span :1500 ft between centers of main towers
• Anchor arm : 325ft each
• Cantilever arm : 468ft each
• Suspended span : 564ft
• Main towers are 280ft high above the monoliths and 76 ft apart at the top

Construction Howrah Bridge
• All members of the super structure comprise built up riveted sections with a combination of high tensile and
mild steel. No nuts and bolts.
• Road way beyond the tower is supported on ground leaving anchor arm free from deck loads
• Bridge deck comprises 71 ft carriage way and 15 ft footway projecting either side of the trusses and braced by a
longitudinal fascia girder.
• The deck system consists of cross girders hung with pinned connection.
• They support a continuous pressed steel system over which deck concrete is laid out.

Cantilever Bridges Function
A structure at least one portion of

which acts as an anchorage for
sustaining another portion which
extends beyond the supporting pier.
• A simple cantilever span is formed
by two cantilever arms extending
from opposite sides of an obstacle
to be crossed, meeting at the center.
• In a common variant,
the suspended span, the cantilever
arms do not meet in the center;
instead, they support a central truss
bridge which rests on the ends of
the cantilever arms.
• The suspended span may be built
off-site and lifted into place, or
constructed in place using special
travelling supports.

Construction
• Some steel arch bridges are built using

pure cantilever spans from each side,
with neither falsework below nor
temporary supporting towers and cables
above.
• These are then joined with a pin, usually
after forcing the union point apart, and
when jacks are removed and the bridge TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
decking is added the bridge becomes
a truss arch.
• Such unsupported construction is only
possible where appropriate rock is
available to support the tension in the
upper chord of the span during
construction, usually limiting this
method to the spanning of narrow
canyons.
TEMPORARY PIER CLOSURE END
Cross – over 2 Long Span Truss + Portal Frame
International airport,
China
Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses + Portal Frames

Reticular Loom

Denver Union Station

Portal Frames
Portal frames were first developed during the Second
World War and became popular in the 1960‘s
They are now commonly used to create wide-span

enclosures, where a clear space is required
uninterrupted by intermediary columns.
They were originally used because of their structural
efficiency, meaning that large spaces could be enclosed
with little use of materials and for a low cost.
They tend to be lightweight and can be fabricated off

site, then bolted to a substructure.
The portal frames themselves may be left exposed to the

internal space, and if carefully designed can be very
beautiful.
Materials used for portal frame is Steel or steel

reinforced precast concrete although can also
constructed using laminated timber such as glulam

Types of Portal frames
Duo-pitch portal frame
Curved portal frame (cellular beam)
Portal with crane

Two-span portal frame Portal frame with external mezzanine

Where a pitch is required, portal frames can have a

mono pitch, or can have a double pitch with a rigid
Mono pitch portal frame joint at the apex.
Tied portal frame

Other forms include; tied portal frames, propped
portal frames and multi-span portal frames which
very large areas.
Where the portal frame

includes a pitch, the wider the
span of the frame, the higher the
apex. To reduce the overall
height, a curved rafter
might be adopted, or a
mansard form.
A curved, or mansard form
increases the pitch of the roof
towards the eaves, where the
runoff is likely to be at its
Long Spangreatest.
Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Typical Portal frame
Portal frames are a type of structural frame, that, in their simplest

form, are characterized by a beam (or rafter) supported at either
either end by columns.
A secondary framework of purlins fixed to the rafters and rails
fixed to the columns provides support for cladding.
Generally, a building structure will be formed by a series of
parallel portal frames running down the length of the buildings,
typically 6 to 8m apart.
Portal frame structures are often clad with prefabricated
composite metal panels, incorporating insulation. Masonry
cladding may be provided at low level to give greater resilience
and security.
Single Skin Trapezoidal Sheeting

Double Skin Trapezoidal Sheeting

Typical Portal frame
Components Of Portal Frame

Construction Portal Frame Connections
Portal frames are generally low-rise structures, comprising columns
and horizontal or pitched rafters, connected by moment-resisting
connections.
Members of portal frames are jointed by means of welding and bolting
so the joints of the frame could transfer moments also in addition to
the axial load
The major connections in a portal frame are the eaves and apex
connections , which are both moment-resisting.

Construction Base Joint for Portal Frames
The legs or stanchions of the portal frame need connecting at the
bottom to a foundation.

Construction Ridge Joint for Portal Frames
It is important that this joint is strong hence the use of wedge
shaped pieces called gusset pieces to strengthen and increase
the bolt area.

Construction Haunch Joint for Portal Frames
It is important that this joint is strong hence the use of wedge
shaped pieces called gusset pieces to strengthen and increase
the bolt area.

Construction Diagonal Bracing for Portal Frames
To help strengthen the framework and prevent

movement diagonal bracing is used.

Load analysis Types of Loads
DEAD LOAD (self weight)
Imposed loads on roofs depend on the roof slope.
A point load, which is used for local checking of
roof materials and fixings, and a uniformly
distributed load, to be applied vertically.
SERVICE LOADS
In portal frames heavy point loads may occur
from suspended walkways, air handling units etc.
In certain situation it will be more appropriate to
use truss or lattice girder rather than a portal
frame.
CRANE LOAD
Cranes impose both horizontal and vertical loads
on the structure, part of loading is due to dynamic
effects. The vertical load will be composed of a
load due to weight of the crane bridge. The
horizontal load due to crane surge and reaction
from the wheel.

Load analysis Types of Loads
WIND LOAD
Wind uplift may be important in terms of rafter
stability , but provided that adequate restraint can
be provided to stabilize the bottom flange of the
rafter near the apex
ACCIDENTAL LOADS
Two kinds of accidental loads are to be considered
• Impact of unusual loading
• Drifted snow
• The opening of the dominant opening which was WIND LOAD
assumed to be shut.
FIRE LOAD
When a portal frame is close to the boundary,
there are several requirements aimed at stopping
fire spread by keeping the boundary intact:
• The use of fire resistant cladding
• Application of fire protection of the steel up to
the underside of the haunch

Load analysis Bending Moment
Rafters are subject to high bending moments in

the plane of the frame, that vary from a
maximum ‘hogging’ moment at the junction with
the column to a minimum sagging moment close
to the apex. They are also subject to overall
compression from the frame action. They are not
subject to any minor axis moments.
Although member resistance is important, stiffness of the frame is also necessary to limit the effects
of deformed geometry and to limit the deflections.
Asymmetric or sway mode deflection Symmetric mode deflection

Bending moment diagram under symmetric
loading
Bending moment diagram under

asymmetric loading

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Long Span Structures

Rasika Dongare Garima Rajput

Visibility Flexibility Large Scale Storage

Auditoriums Exhibition halls

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Both tensile and Pure tension or

1. Girder 1. Parabolic Arch

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Both tensile and Pure tension or

1. Girder Pure Compression:

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

By the late 20th century, durable upper

the largest exhibition hall had a span of

and the largest commercial fixed-wing

The major evolution in long span section-

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Form - Active Section - Active Vector - Active Surface - Active

Systems of flexible, Systems of rigid, Systems of short, Systems of flexible

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

The use of long span beams results in a

Many long span solutions are also well

The design of long span steel and (steel -

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

The types of long span beams are:

1. Parallel beam approach

2. Composite Beam with Web openings

The alternative way of forming the

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

With stiffened web openings

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

The depth of the girder

Spans in excess of 20 m can be

5. Haunched Composite beams

Spans in excess of 20 m can

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Timber, Laminated Timber Reinforced Concrete Metal

• The Cleddau Bridge is a toll bridge

• Errors in the box girder design

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

• The tendency of the bottom flange

• The support diaphragm was, in

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Long Span Beams + Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

External loads on the nodes Tension & Compression members

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

• A pitched roof truss has a bottom

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

• A pitched roof truss has a

Parallel chord truss

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

King post truss:

A king post is a central vertical post used in

Queen post truss:

A queen-post bridge has two uprights, placed

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

•In Pratt trusses, the web members are arranged in

•These trusses can be used for spans that range

•The converse of the Pratt is the Howe truss. This is

•These trusses can be used for spans that range

Long Span Beams Long Span Trusses Portal Frames

Fink trusses are used for longer spans having high