Chapter-8

Elementary Algebra

1. Algebraic Expression
In algebra, we generally come across two types of symbols namely
constant and variable. A symbol having a fixed numerical value
is called a constant and a symbol which takes various numerical
values is called a variable. For example, the perimeter ‘P’ of a
rectange of sides ‘l ’ and ‘b’ is given by P = 2(l + b). Here, 2 is a
constant and l and b are variables.
A combination of constants and variables connected by the signs
of fundamental operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division is called algebraic expression.
Various parts of an algebraic expression which are separated by
the signs of ‘+’ or ‘–’ are called the terms of the expression. For
example, 2x2 – 3xy + 5y2 is an algebraic expression consisting of
three terms, namely 2x2, –3xy, 5y2.
2. Factorization of Algebraic Expressions
The process of writing an algebraic expression as the product of
two or more algebraic expressions is called factorization and
the algebraic expressions that may be multiplied to obtain the
given algebraic expressions are called factors of the given
expression. For example, (x + 3) and (x – 3) are the factors of
(x2 – 9), because (x + 3) (x – 3) = x2 – 9.
Similarly, x, x + 1, x(x +1), (x +1)2 and x(x +1)2 are factors of x2 + 2x2
+ x, because x3 + 2x2 + x = x(x +1)2.
3. Algebraic Equations and Algebraic Indentities
An equation is a statement that two algebraic expressions are
equal. If an equation is satisfied by any value of the variable,
then the equation is said to be an identity. These identities are
used as expansion formulae and ought to be carefully noted and
committed to memory.
(1) (a  b )2  a 2  2ab  b 2  (a  b )2  4ab
(2) (a  b )2  a 2  2ab  b 2  (a  b )2  4ab
(3) (a  b )2  (a  b )2  2(a 2  b 2 )
(4) (a  b )2  (a  b )2  4ab
(5) (a  b  c )2  a 2  b 2  c 2  2(ab  bc  ca )
(6) (a  b  c  d )2  a 2  b 2  c 2  d 2 
2a(b  c  d )  2b(c  d )  2cd
70 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae

(7) (a  b )(a  b )  a 2  b 2

(8) (x  a )(x  b )  x 2  (a  b )x  ab

(9) (x  a )(x  b )(x  c )  x 3  (a  b  c )x 2  (ab  bc  ca )x  abc

(10) (a  b )3  a 3  3ab(a  b )  b 3

(11) (a  b )3  a 3  3ab(a  b )  b 3

(12) a 3  b 3  (a  b )3  3ab(a  b )  (a  b )(a 2  ab  b 2 )

(13) a 3  b 3  (a  b )3  3ab(a  b )  (a  b )(a 2  ab  b 2 )

(14) a 3  b 3  c 3  3abc  (a  b  c ) (a 2  b 2  c 2  ab  ac  bc )
If a + b + c = 0, then a 3  b 3  c 3  3abc
(15) a n  b n  (a  b )(a n 1  a n 2b  a n 3b 2  ... bn 1 ) for all n.

(16) a n  b n  (a  b )(a n 1  a n 2b  a n 3b 2  ... b n 1 ) if n is even.

(17) a n  bn  (a  b )(a n 1  a n 2b  a n 3b 2  ... bn 1 ) if n is odd.

(18) a 4  a 2b 2  b 4  (a 2  ab  b 2 )(a 2  ab  b 2 )

K KUNDAN
If we put a = x and b = , in the above mentioned formulae, we
x
will have the following algebraic identities which are more
frequently used:
2
 1 2 1
(1)  x    x  2  2
 x x
2
 1 2 1
(2)  x    x  2  2
 x x
2 2
 1  1
(3)  x     x    4
 x  x
2 2
 1  1
(4)  x     x    4
 x  x
 1  1  2 1 
(5)  x    x     x  2 
x x x
3
 1 3 1  1
(6)  x    x  3  3  x  
 x x  x
3
 1 3 1  1
(7)  x    x  3  3  x  
 x x  x
Elementary Algebra 71

3 1  1  2 1 
(8) x   x    x  2  1
x3  x x

3 1  1  2 1 
(9) x   x    x  2  1
x3  x x

4. Remainder Theorem
If an expression f(x) is divided by (x – a), then the remainder is
f(a).
Note:
(i) If an expression f(x) is divided by (x + a), then the remainder
is the value of f(x) at x = (–a), ie f(–a).
(ii) If an expression f(x) is divided by (ax – b), then the remainder
b b
is the value of f(x) at x = , ie f   .
a a
(iii) If an expression f(x) is divided by (ax + b), then the remainder
b  b
is the value of f(x) at x = – , ie f    .
a a
(iv) If an expression f(x) is divided by (b – ax), then the remainder

K KUNDAN
b b
is equal to the value of f(x) at x = , ie f   .
a a

5. Factor Theorem
If f(x) is completely divisible by (x – a), then f(a) = 0. Thus (x – a) is
a factor of f(x)  f(a) = 0.
Note:
(i) (x + a) is a factor of an expression f(x), if f(–a) = 0.
b
(ii) (ax – b) is a factor of an expression f(x), if f   = 0.
a

 b
(iii) (ax + b) is a factor of an expression f(x), if f    = 0.
a
(iv) (x – a) (x – b) is a factor of an expression f(x), if f(a) = 0 and
f(b) = 0.
6. Important Results Regarding Remainder and Factor
Theorem
(i) (xn – an) is divisible by (x – a) for all values of n.
(ii) (xn + an) is divisible by (x + a) only when n is odd.
(iii) (xn – an) is divisible by (x + a) only for even values of n.
(iv) (xn + an) is never divisible by (x – a).
72 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
7. Polynomials
An expression of the form p(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + anxn, where a0,
a1, a2, ..., an are real numbers and n is non-negative integer is
called a polynomial of degree n, where an  0.
For example, (7x3 – 5x2 + 2x + 1) is polynomial of degree 3. But
(6x2 + 3x + x + 2) is not a polynomial, since in a polynomial,
every power of x must be a non-negative integer.
The above expression (7x3 – 5x2 + 2x + 1) is a polynomial in one
variable x. Consider another example.
 2 2 5 2
The expression  3  2x  4x y  8y  xy  is a polynomial in
3
two variables x and y.
(a) Degree of a Polynomial in One Variable
In a polynomial in one variable, the highest power of the
 4 2 5x 1 
variable is called its degree. For example,  3x  7x   
2 3
is a polynomial in x of degree 4.
(b) Degree of a Polynomial in Two Variables

K KUNDAN
In a polynomial in more than one variable, the sum of the
powers of the variables in each term so obtained is called the
degree of the polynomial. For example (3x4 – 2x3y2 + 7xy3 – 9x
+ 5y + 4) is a polynomial in x and y of degree 5.
(c) Type of Polynomial According to its Degree

Name of
Degree Example
Polynomial

1. Linear
1 (2x + 1), (5y + 4)
Polynomial

2. Quadratic
2 (2x2 – 3x + 4), (2 – x + x2)
Polynomial

3. Cubic
3 (x3 – 7x2 + 2x – 3)
Polynomial

4. Biquadratic
4 (3x4 – 7x3 + x2 – x + 9)
Polynomial
Note:
A polynomial consists of a constant term only is called a
constant polynomial. The degree of constant polynomial is
zero.
Elementary Algebra 73
8. Monomial
An algebraic expression containing only one term is called a
2 2 2 5 2 2
monomial. For example, –5, 3x, 7xy, x y , a b etc are all
3 3
monomials.
9. Binomial
An algebraic expression containing two terms is called binomial.
For example (2x – 3), (3x + 2y), (xyz – 5) etc are binomials. Note
that (3x + 7x) is not a binomial, because (3x + 7x =) 10x, which is
a monomial.
10. Trinomial
An algebraic expression containing three terms is called a
trinomial. For example, (a – b + 2), (x2 – y2 + xy), (x3 – 2y3 – 3x2y2z)
etc are trinomials.
11. Factors
Each term in algebraic expression is a product of one or more
number(s) and/or literal(s). These number(s) and/or literals(s)
are known as the factors of that term.
A constant factor is called numerical factor, while a variable

K KUNDAN
factor is known as a literal factor.
12. Co-efficient
In a term of an algebraic expression any of the factors with the
sign of the term is called the co-efficient of the product of the
other factors. Consider the following examples:
(a) In –5xy, the co-efficient of x is –5y; the co-efficient of y is –5x
and co-efficient of xy is –5.
(b) In –x, the co-efficient of x is –1.
(c) In 3a2bc, the co-efficient of a2 is 3bc, the co-efficient of b is
3a2c and the co-efficient of c is 3a2b.
13. Constant Term
A term of the expression having no literal factors is called a
constant term. For e xample, in the algebraic e xpression
x2 – xy + yz – 4, the constant term is –4.
14. Like and Unlike Terms
The terms having the same literal factors are called like or similar
terms, otherwise, they are called unlike terms. For example, in
the algebraic expression 2a2b + 3ab2 – 7ab – 4ba2, we have 2a2b
and –4ba2 are like terms, whereas 3ab2 and –7ab are unlike terms.
74 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
15. HCF of Polynomials
A polynomial h(x) is called the HCF or GCD of two or more given
polynomials, if h(x) is a polynomial of highest degree dividing
each one of the given polynomials. The coefficient of highest
degree term in HCF is always taken as positive.
We can have a rule to find the HCF of two or more given
polynomials. See the stepwise procedure given below:
Step I: Express each polynomial as a product of powers of
irreducible factors. (This requires that the numerical
factor be also expressed as product of powers of primes.)
Step II: If there is no common factor, the HCF is 1. If there are
common irreducible factors, find the smallest (least)
exponents of these irreducible factors in the factorized
form of the given polynomials.
Step III: Raise the common irreducible factors to the smallest
exponents found in Step II and multiply to get the
HCF.
Ex. 1: Find the HCF of the polynomials 30(x 2 – 3x + 2) and
50(x 2 – 2x + 1) .
Soln: Let f (x )  30(x 2  3x  2) ,
 
g  x  = 50 x 2 – 2x + 1 .

K KUNDAN Step I: Writing f(x) and g(x) as a product of powers of

irreducible factors,
f  x   2  3  5   x  1   x  2 ,
2
g  x   2  52   x  1 .
Step II: Common irreducible factors and the smallest
(least) exponents of these in f(x) and g(x) taken
together are:
Common Irreducible Least
Factor Exponent
2 1
5 1
x–1 1
Step III: HCF = 21 × 51 × (x – 1)1 = 10(x – 1)
With practice, the reader will be able to write
the HCF dire ctly afte r factorizing the
polynomials into irreducible factors.
16. LCM of Polynomials
A polynomial p(x) is called LCM of two or more given polynomials,
if it is a polynomial of smallest degree which is divided by each
one of the given polynomials.
We can also have a rule to find the LCM of two or more given
polynomials.
Elementary Algebra 75
We may use the following three-step procedure to calculate the
LCM of two (or more) polynomials:
Step I: Express each polynomial as a product of powers of
irreducible factors.
Step II: List all the irreducible factors (once only) occurring in
the given polynomials. For each of these factors, find
the greatest exponent in the factorized form of the given
polynomials.
Step III: Raise each irreducible factor to the greatest exponent
found in Step II, and multiply to get the LCM.
Ex. 2: Find the LCM of the polynomials
f  x  = 4  x – 1
2
x 2
+ 6x + 8  and


g  x  = 10  x – 1 x + 2  x 2 + 7x + 10 . 
Soln: Step I: Writing the polynomials as a product of powers
of irreducible factors, we get
2
f  x   22   x  1   x  2   x  4 ,

g  x   2  5   x  1   x  2   x  5   x  2
2
or, g  x   2  5   x  1   x  2   x  5

K KUNDAN Step II:

Irreducible
Factor

x–1
2
5
Greatest
Exponent
2
1
2
x+2 2
x+4 1
x+5 1
Step III:
2 2 1 1
LCM = 22  51   x  1   x  2   x  4   x  5
2 2
= 20  x  1  x  2  x  4 x  5

17. Relation Between HCF and LCM of Two Polynomials

If the HCF and LCM of the two polynomials f(x) and g(x) are h(x)
and l(x) respectively, then h(x) × l(x) = f(x) × g(x)
18. Linear Equations
An equation involving linear polynomials (ie a polynomial of
de gre e one ) is calle d a line ar e quation. For e xample ,
3
x  4  2x  3 is a linear equation.
2
76 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
There are two types of linear equations.
(i) Linear Equations in One Variable.
(ii) Linear Equations in Two Variables.
19. Linear Equations in One Variable
A linear equation in one variable is an equation of the form ax +
b = 0 or ax = c; where a, b and c are real numbers, a  0 and x is
a variable. For example,
3
2x + 3 = 0 and x  4  2x  3 are linear equations in one
2
variable.
20. Solution of a Linear Equation in One Variable
A value of the variable which satisfies the given linear equation
is known as its solution. A solution of an equation is also known
as root.
b
If ax + b = 0 is a linear equation, then x   is its root.
a
21. Linear Equations in Two Variables
An equation of the form ax + by + c = 0 or ax + by = c, where a, b,
c are real numbers, where a  0 , b  0 and x, y are variables, is

K KUNDAN
called a linear equation in two variables.
For example, x + 2y = 3 and –x + 3y = 4 are linear equations in
two variables.
22. Solution of the Linear Equations in Two Variables
Let ax + by + c = 0, where a, b, c are real numbers such that a  0
and b  0 . Then, any pair of values of x and y which satisfies
the equation ax + by + c = 0, is called a solution of it.
For example, x = 3, y = 2 is a solution of 3x – 2y = 5 because,
when x = 3, y = 2, we have LHS = 3 × 3 – 2 × 2 = 5 = RHS. But,
x = 3, y = –2 is not its solution, because, 3 × 3 – 2 × (–2)  5
ie, LHS  RHS; when x = 3 and y = –2.
23 Infinitely Many Solutions of a Linear Equations in Two
Variables
Let us take an example.
Show that (x = 1, y = 1) and (x = 2, y = 5) is a solution of 4x – y –
3 = 0. To examine the above solution, we put x = 1 and y = 1 in
the given equation. Now, we have,
LHS = 4 × 1 – 1 – 3 = 0 = RHS
Therefore, x = 1, y = 1 is a solution of 4x – y – 3 = 0.
Again, if we put x = 2, y = 5 in the equation 4x – y – 3 = 0, we
have,
Elementary Algebra 77
LHS = 4 × 2 – 5 – 3 = 0 = RHS
Hence, x = 2, y = 5 is a solution of 4x – y – 3 = 0.
In the above illustration, we have seen that the linear equation
4x – y – 3 = 0 has two solutions. Question now arises. Does it
have more solutions? In fact, we can obtain as many solutions
as we wish in the following way:
Substitute a value of your choice for x (say x = 0), in 4x – y – 3 =
0. The equation reduces to 4 × 0 – y – 3 = 0
 –y = 3  y = –3.
Therefore, (0, –3) is another solution of 4x – y – 3 = 0
Similarly, substitute x = –1, we get,
4 × –1 – y – 3 = 0  –7 – y = 0  y = –7
Continuing in this manner, we can obtain any number of solutions
of 4x – y –3 = 0. Thus, a linear equation in two variables has
infinitely many solutions.
24. Simultaneous Linear Equations
A pair of linear equations in two variables is said to form a
system of simultaneous linear equations.
A pair of values of x and y satisfying each one of the equations
in a given system of two simultaneous equations in x and y is
called a solution of the system.

K KUNDAN
25. Consistency of Linear Equations
A system consisting of two simultaneous linear equations in
two variables is said to be consistent, if it has at least one
solution.
A system consisting of two simultaneous linear equations in
two variables is said to be inconsistent, if it has no solution.
For example, consider the system of equations: x + y = 2 and
2x + 2y = 5. Clearly, there are no values of x and y which may
simultaneously satisfy the given equations. Hence, the systerm
given above is inconsistent.
26. Conditions For Consistency (Solvability) of System of
Simultaneous Linear Equations
The system of equations,
(i) a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
(ii) a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
a1 b1
(a) is consistent with unique solution, if a  b , ie lines
2 2
represented by equations (i) and (ii) are not parallel.
a1 b1 c1
(b) is consistent with infinitely many solutions, if a  b  c ,
2 2 2
ie lines represented by equations (i) and (ii) are coincident.
78 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
a1 b1 c1
(c) is inconsistent, if a  b  c , ie lines represented by equa-
2 2 2
tions (i) and (ii) are parallel and non-coincident.
27. Method of Solving Simultaneous Linear Equations
(i) Method of Elimination by Substitution
In this method, we express one of the variables in terms of
the other variable from either of the two equations and then
this expression is put in the other equation to obtain an
equation in one variable as explained in the following
procedure:
Step I: Obtain the two equations. Let the equations be
a1x  b1y  c1  0 ... (i) and
a2x  b2y  c 2  0 ... (ii)
Step II: Choose either of the two equations, say (i), and
find the value of one variable, say ‘y’, in terms of
the other, ie ‘x’.
Step III: Substitute the value of ‘y’, obtained in step II, in
the other equation ie (ii) to get an equation in ‘x’.
Step IV: Solve the equation obtained in step III to get the
value of x.
Step V: Substitute the value of ‘x’ obtained in step IV in

K KUNDAN the expression for ‘y’ in terms of ‘x’ obtained in

step II to get the value of ‘y’.
Step VI: The values of ‘x’ and ‘y’ obtained in steps IV and V
respectively constitute the solution of the given
system of two linear equations.
Ex. 3: Solve the following system of equations by using
the method of substitution:
(a) 3x – 5y = –1
x – y = –1
(b) x + 2y = –1
2x – 3y = 12
Soln:(a) The given system of equations is
3x – 5y = –1 .... (i)
x – y = –1 .... (ii)
From (ii), we get: y = x + 1.
Substituting y = x + 1 in (i), we get
3x – 5 (x + 1) = –1
or, –2x – 5 = –1
or, –2x = 4
or, x = –2
Putting x = –2 in y = x + 1,
we get, y = –1.
Hence, the solution is x = –2, y = –1.
Elementary Algebra 79
(b) The given system of equations is
x + 2y = –1 ..... (i)
2x – 3y = 12 .... (ii)
From (i), we get x = –1 – 2y
Substituting x = –1 – 2y in (ii), we get
2 (–1 – 2y) – 3y = 12
or, –2 – 4y – 3y = 12
or, –7y = 14
or, y = –2
Putting y = –2 in x = –1 – 2y,
we get, x = – 1 – 2 × (–2) = 3
Hence, the solution is x = 3, y = –2.
(ii) Method of Elimination by Equating the Coefficient
In this method we eliminate one of the two variables to
obtain an equation in one variable which can easily be solved.
Putting the value of this variable in any one of the given
equations, the value of the other variable can be obtained.
See the following procedure that will illustrate our points:
Step I: Obtain the two equations.
Step II: Multiply the e quations so as to make the
coefficients of the variable to be eliminated equal.
Step III: Add or subtract the equations obtained in step II

K KUNDAN
according as the terms having the same coefficients
are of opposite or of the same sign.
Step IV: Solve the equation in one variable obtained in step
III.
Step V: Substitute the value found in step IV in any one of
the given equations and find the value of the other
variable.
The value s of the variables in step IV and V
constitute the solutions of the given system of
equations.
Ex. 4: Solve the following system of linear equations
by using the method of elimination by equating
the coefficients:
(a) 3x + 2y = 11
2x + 3y = 4
(b) 8x + 5y = 9
3x + 2y = 4
Soln: (a)The given system of equations is
3x + 2y = 11 .... (i)
2x + 3y = 4 .... (ii)
Let us eliminate y from the given equations. The
coefficients of y in the given equations are 2 and 3
respectively. The LCM of 2 and 3 is 6. So, we make
the coefficient of y equal to 6 in the two equations.
80 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
Multiplying (i) by 3 and (ii) by 2, we get
9x + 6y = 33 .... (iii)
4x + 6y = 8 .... (iv)
Subtracting (iv) from (iii), we get
5x = 25 or, x = 5
Substituting x = 5 in (i), we get
15 + 2y = 11 or, 2y = –4 or, y = –2
Hence, the solution is x = 5, y = –2
(b) The given system of equations is
8x + 5y = 9 .... (i)
3x + 2y = 4 .... (ii)
Let us eliminate x from the given equations. The
coefficients of x in the given equations are 8 and 3
respectively. The LCM of 8 and 3 is 24. So, we make
both the coefficients equal to 24.
Multiplying (i) by 3 and (ii) by 8, we get
24x + 15y = 27 .... (iii)
24x + 16y = 32 .... (iv)
Subtracting (iv) from (iii), we get
–y = –5 or, y = 5
Putting y = 5 in (i), we get
8x + 25 = 9 or, 8x = –16 or, x = –2.

K KUNDAN Hence, the solution is x = –2, y = 5.

(iii) Method of Cross-Multiplication
Let a1x  b1y  c1  0 and a 2x  b2y  c 2  0 be a system of
simultaneous linear equations in two variables x and y
a1 b1
such that a  b ie a1b2  a2 b1  0. Then the system has
2 2

a unique solution given by

(b1c 2  b2c1 ) (c1a2  c 2a1 )
x = (a b  a b ) and y = (a b  a b )
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
Note:
(a) The above solution is generally written as
x y 1
 
b1c 2  b2c1 c1a 2  c 2a1 a1b2  a 2b1
x y 1
or, b c  b c  a c  a c  a b  a b
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
(b) The following procedure is very helpful in determining
the solution without remembering the above formula:
Step I: Obtain the two equations.
Step II: Shift all terms on LHS in the two equations to
introduce zeros on RHS ie write the two equations
in the following form:
Elementary Algebra 81
a1x  b1y  c1  0
a2x  b2y  c 2  0
Step III: In the above system of equations there are three
a1 
columns viz column containing x, ie   , column
a2 
b1 
containing y, ie   and column containing
b2 
c1 
constant terms, ie   . To obtain the solution,
c 2 
write x, –y and 1 separated by equality signs as
shown below:

In the denominator of xy, leave column containing

x and write remaining two columns in the same
order. In the denominator of –y, leave column
containing y and write the remaining two columns.
Similarly, in the denominator of one write columns
containing x and y. Mark crossed-arrows pointing

K KUNDAN downward from top to bottom and pointing upward

from bottom to top as shown above.
The arrows between two numbers indicate that
the numbers are to be multiplied.
Step IV: To obtain the denominators of x, –y and 1, multiply
the numbers with downward arrow and from their
product subtract the product of the numbers with
upward arrow.
Applying this, we get
x y 1
 
b1c 2  b2c1 a1c 2  a 2c1 a1b2  a 2b1
Step V: Obtain the value of x by equating first and third
expressions in step IV. The value of y is obtained
by equating second and third expressions in
step IV.
Ex. 5: Solve each of the following system of equations
by using the method of cross-multiplication.
(a) x + y = 7 (b) 2x + 3y = 17
5x + 12y = 7 3x – 2y = 6
Soln: (a)The given system of equations is
x+y–7=0
5x + 12y – 7 = 0
By cross-multiplication, we get
82 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae

x y 1
or,  
1  7  12  7 1  7  5  7 1  12  5  1
x y 1
or,  
7  84 7  35 12  5
x y 1
or,  
77 28 7
77 28
or, x = and y = 
7 7
or, x = 11 and y = –4
Hence, the solution is x = 11, y = –4.
(b) The given system of equations is
2x + 3y – 17 = 0
3x - 2y – 6 = 0
By cross-multiplication, we have

K KUNDAN or

or,
x
x


y



1
18  34 12  51 4  9
y
3  6  (2)  17 2  6  3  17
=
1
2  2  3  3

x y 1
or,  
52 39 13
52 39
or, x = and y =
13 13
or, x = 4 and y = 3.
Hence, x = 4, y = 3 is the solution.
28. Quadratic Equations
Let p(x) be a quadratic polynomial. Then, the equation p(x) = 0 is
called quadratic equation. The values of x satisfying p(x) = 0 are
called its roots or zeros. For example, 25x2 – 30x + 9 = 0 is a
3
quadratic equation. And the value of x  is the solution of
5
3
the given equation. Since, if we put x  in 25x2 – 30x + 9 = 0,
5
Elementary Algebra 83
2
 3 3
we have LHS = 25     30   9 = 9 – 18 + 9 = 0 = RHS.
 5 5
The general form of a quardratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0;
where a, b and c are real numbers and a  0 .

29. Roots of a Quadratic Equation

(i) If  and  are the two roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, then
b  b 2  4ac b  b 2  4ac
 and  
2a 2a
b
(ii) Sum of the roots (  )  
a
c
(iii) Product of the roots () 
a
(iv) A quardratic equation whose roots are  and  is given by
x 2  (  )x    0 , ie x 2 –(sum of roots)x + pr oduct
of roots = 0
(v) In ax2 + bx + c = 0 the expression D = b2 – 4ac is called its
discriminant.
30. Nature of Roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0

K KUNDAN
Let D = b2 – 4ac be the discriminant of the given equation. Then
roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are
(i) real and equal, if D = 0.
(ii) real, unequal and rational, when D > 0 and D is a perfect
square.
(iii) real, unequal and irrational, when D > 0 and D is not a
perfect square.
(iv) imaginary, if D < 0.
(v) integers, when a = 1, b and c are integers and the roots are
rational.
31. Methods of Solving Quadratic Equations
(i) By Factorization
This can be understood by the examples given below:
Ex. 6: Fi nd t he s olut ions of the quad rati c eq uati on
x 2 + 6x + 5 = 0 and check the solutions.
Soln: The quadratic polynomial x 2  6x  5 can be factorized as
follows:
= x2 + 6x + 5 = x2 + 5x + x + 5
= x (x  5)  1(x  5)
= (x  5)(x  1)
84 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
Therefore the given quadratic equation becomes
(x  5)(x  1)  0
This gives x = – 5 or, x = – 1
Therefore, x = – 1, – 5 are the required solutions of the
given equation.
Check: We substitute x = – 1 and x = – 5 in the given
equation and get
(a) (–1)2 + 6(–1) + 5
=1–6+5=0
(b) (–5)2 + 6(–5) + 5
= 25 – 30 + 5 = 0
Therefore, the solutions are correct.
(ii) By Using Method of Completing Square
It is not always easy to factorise polynomials and solve qua-
dratic equations as discussed above. For example, consider
the quadratic equation x2 + 5x + 5 = 0. If we want to factorise
the left-hand side of the equation using the method of split-
ting the middle term, we must determine two integral factors
of 5 whose sum is 5. But, the only factors of 5 are 1 and 5 or
–1 and –5. In both the cases, the sum is not 5. Therefore,
using factorisation, we are unable to solve the quadratic equa-
tion x2 + 5x + 5 = 0. Here, we shall discuss a method to solve

K KUNDAN such quadratic equations. Let us consider the following ex-

ample:
Ex. 7: Solve: x2 + 3x + 1 = 0.
Soln: We have
x2 + 3x + 1 = 0
1
We add and subtract ( coefficient of x)2 in LHS and get
2
2 2
 3  3
x 2  3x  1        0
 2  2
2 2
2  3  3  3
 x  2  x       1  0
 2  2  2
2
 3 5
 x     0
 2 4
2 2
 3  5 3 5
  x      or x  
2  2  2 2

This gives x 

 3 5  or x 
3  5
2 2
3  5 3  5
Therefore, x   , are the solutions of the
2 2
given equation.
Elementary Algebra 85
(iii) By Using Quadratic Formula
If the equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0, then

b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
b  b 2  4ac
or, x  and is often referred
2a 2
to as quadratic formula. b  b  4ac
2a
b
(a) When b2 – 4ac = 0, ie b2 = 4ac, then    and
2a
b
 where  and  are the two roots of the above
2a
equation ie both the roots are equal.
(b) When b2 – 4ac > 0 ie b2 > 4ac, then the equation has
two distinct real roots ,  given by
b  b 2  4ac b  b 2  4ac
 and  
2a 2a
Ex. 8: Solve the following equation:
2x2 + 5x – 6 = 0.
Soln: Here, the given equation :

K KUNDAN x =
2x2 + 5x – 6 = 0
ie a = 2, b = 5, c = –6
b  b 2  4ac
2a
5  (5)2  4  2  (6) 5  25  48
= =
22 4
5  73 5  73 5  73
= = ,
4 4 4

32. Finding Roots of a Quadratic Equation Having Rational

Roots
Suppose we have to find the roots of 10 x 2  x  21  0 .
Note the following steps:
10 x 2  x  21

Step I: –21 × 10 = –210 (Multiply the coefficient of x2

and the constant term)
Step II: 14 –15 (Find the factors of –210 which give
coefficient of x ie (–1) in any
possible way: 14 × (–15) = –210 and
14 + (–15) = –1))
86 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae

 
14 7 15 3
Step III:   (Divide the factors obtained in
10 5 10 2
step II by coefficient of x2)
 
7 3
Step IV: (Change the sign of values
5 2
obtained in step III)
7 3
Hence the roots are and
5 5
Now see the examples given below:
Ex. 9: Find he roots of 12x2 + 25 x – 117 = 0
Soln:

52 13 27 9

K KUNDAN
 
12 3 12 4
 
13 9
3 4
13 9
Therefore, the roots are and .
3 4
Ex. 10: Find the roots of 35x2 + x – 12 = 0
Soln: 35x2 + x – 12 = 0

35   12

21 –20
 
21 3 20 4
 
35 5 35 7
 
3 4
5 7
3 4
Therefore, the roots are and
5 7
Elementary Algebra 87
Ex. 11: Find the roots of 91x2 + 20x + 1 = 0.
Soln: 91x2 + 20x + 1 = 0

91
7 13
 
7 1 13 1
 
91 13 91 7
 
1 1
13 7
1 1
Therefore, the roots are and .
13 7
Ex. 12: I. 6x2 – x – 35 = 0
II. 6y2 + 41y + 63 = 0
Compare the roots of the quadratic equations in I and
II. Which of the following is true?
1) x > y
2) x < y
3) x > y
4) x < y

K KUNDAN 5) x = y
Soln: 3;
I. 6x 2  x  35  0

–35 × 6
II. 6y 2  41y  63  0

6 × 63

–15 14 27 14
   
15 14 27 9 14 7
 
6 6 6 2 6 3
   
5 7 9 7
2 3 2 3
Comparing the pair of values obtained from quadratic
equations (I) and (II), we get x > y.
33. Rational Expressions
p(x )
An expre ssion of the form , whe re p(x) and q(x) are
q (x )
polynomials and q(x)  0, is called a rational expression. Every
polynomial is a rational expression but a rational expression
need not be a polynomial.
88 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
34. Rational Expression in Lowest Terms
If p(x) and q(x) are polynomials such that HCF of p(x) and q(x) is
p (x )
1 then q (x ) is a rational expression in its lowest terms. This is

also called simplification of algebraic fractions.

35. Results on Rational Expressions
(i) Sum or difference of two rational expressions is a rational
expression.
(ii) Product of two rational expressions is a rational expression.
(iii) Addition as well as multiplication on rational expressions
satisfies the cumulative and associative laws.
(iv) 0 is the additive identity.
p (x )  p (x )
(v) Additive inverse of q (x ) is q (x ) .

36. Condition for Common Roots

Let a1x 2  b1x  c1  0 and a 2x 2  b2x  c 2  0 be two quadratic equa-
tions such that a1, a1  0 and a1b2  a2b1.
Let  be the common root of these two equations.

K KUNDAN
Then, a1 2  b1  c1  0

and a 2 2  b2  c 2  0
Solving these two equations by cross-multiplication, we get
2  1
 
b1c 2  b2c1 c1a 2  c 2a1 a1b2  a 2b1

b1c 2  b2c1 c a  c 2a1

 2   1 2
a1b2  a 2b1 and a1b2  a 2b1
Eliminating , we get
2
 b1c 2  b2c1   c1a 2  c 2a1 
 a b  a b    a b  a b 
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1

2
 b1c 2  b2c1 a1b2  a2b1   c1a 2  c 2a1 
The above is the required condition for the two quadratic equa-
tions to have a common root.
The common root is given by
c1a2  c 2a1 b c  b2c1
  1 2
a1b2  a 2b1 or c1a 2  c 2a1
Elementary Algebra 89
Note: (i) To find the common root of two equations, make the
coefficient of second degree terms in two equations
equal and subtract. The value of x so obtained is the
required common root.
(ii) If the two equations have both roots common, then
a1 b1 c1
 
a2 b2 c 2

Ex. 13: Fin d th e v a lue of K , so tha t th e eq uati ons

x 2  x  12  0 and Kx 2  10 x  3  0 may have one root
common. Also find the common root.
Soln: Let  be the common root of the two equations.
Hence, 2 – – 12 = 0 and
K2 + 10+ 3 = 0
Solving the two equations,
2  1
 
117 12K  3 10  K
2
  12K  3  117 10  K 
2
 9  4K  1  117 10  K 

K KUNDAN  16K 2  8K  1  130  13K

 16K 2  5 K  129  0
 16K2 – 48K + 43K – 129 = 0
 16K (K – 3) + 43(K – 3) = 0
 (16K + 43) (K – 3) = 0
43
K =  or 3
16
12K  3
 = = –3 or 4
10  K
37. Maximum or Minimum Value of a Quadratic Expression
As we have already seen, equation of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0
(where, a  0) is called a quadratic equation. An expression of
the type ax2 + bx + c is called a “quadratic expression”.
The quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c takes different values as x
takes different values.
As x varies from – to +, the quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c
(i) has a minimum value whenever a > 0. The minimum value of
 4ac  b 2 
the quadratic expression is  and it occurs at
 4a 
b
x  .
2a
90 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
(ii) has a miximum value whenever a < 0. The miximum value of
 4ac  b 2 
the quadratic expression is  and it occurs at
 4a 

b
x  .
2a
Ex. 14: Fi nd t he m axim um o r mi nimu m v a lue of
–5x2 + 20x + 40.
Soln. A quadratic expression of the form ax2 + bx + c, will have
a minimum value when a > 0 and maximum value when
a < 0. Its maximum or minimum value is given by
4ac  b 2 b
and it occurs at x   .
4a 2a
Given, a = –5, b = 20 and c = 40
Since, a < 0, the expression has a maximum value.
4(5)(40)  202
 the maximum value = = 60
4(5)
Ex. 15: In the prev ious exa mple , fi nd t he v alue of
x for which the maximum value occurs.
Soln. The maximum vlaue of the expression occurs at

K KUNDAN x
b

20
2a 2(5)
2