Maneuvering and the Flight Envelope 12.5 SYMMETRICAL PULL-UP: INSTANTANEOUS AND SUSTAINED 12.5.1 INSTANTANEOUS PULL-UP Consider an airplane diving along path in a vertical plane (vertical tothe horizon). Figure 12.16 depicts a typical situation when the airplane is being recovered back to level flight. The flight path is assumed to be a circle with radius, Rjgop- This maneuver is referred to as a steady symmetrical pull-up. A push-over mancuver would he just the opposite, Rico L=oW=W+CF. CF. = MQ) "Rigop Ww gure 12.16 Airplane in a Steady, Symmetrical Pull-up To pull n *g*-s in such a pull-up requires the lift to equal: L = nW. The maximum load factor which can be developed from an aerodynamic viewpoint is given by: L oseVG,S _ yr Ci, Nm“ W(=T) O50VEC,, S Ve CL (12.45) The reader should note that this result is consistent with that depicted in Figure 12.9. Observe, that at a speed equal to twice the stall speed, a n=4 load factor can be pulled. The problem is that this applies only in a steady state. If the airplanc is pitched up rapidly, the build-up of the normal force coefficient with angle of attack becomes a function of the rate of build-up of angle of attack with time. Figure 12.17 shows the results of test data on an airfoil which indicate the dependence on the rate of change of angle of attack with time. Note that the maximum available normal force coefficient is substantially greater than it is according to static test data. This is referred to as a dy- namic stall. Ina pushover maneuver the load factor will be negative. The magnitude of the maximum nega- tive normal force coefficient tends to be less than that of the maximum positive normal force coeffi- cient. The reason is that most wings are built with positive cambered airfoils. Chapter 12 603Maneuvering and the Flight Envelope Taken from Ref. 12.6 for a NACA 0012 airfoil 2.0 0 10 20 Angle of Attack, a, deg. 12.5.2 SUSTAINED PULL-UP In the discussion of the instantaneous pull-up, only the lift equilibrium was considered. It is quite possible that the thrust is insufficient to overcome the extra drag due to the higher required lift coefficient. If speed can be maintained, the maneuver is called: sustained. This implies sufficient power or thrust is available to overcome the extra induced drag associated with the higher lift in the pull-up. In the following analysis it is assumed that the pitch rate is sufficiently small, so that static data can be used. For jet-propelled airplanes, the thrust required to sustain speed in an n-g pull-up can be written with Eqn (8.59) as: aC)? Treats, = Da-g = Cras = (c. + ooo")as (12.46) where: Cy, is the lift coefficient in level flight at the same speed. For propeller driven airplanes, the power required to sustain speed in an n-g pull-up can be writ- ten with En (8.69) as: @C, mAc Pready-, =D: = CygsV = (co, + )sv (12.47) Figure 12,18 illustrates the dramatic difference between instantaneous and sustained load-factor capability of the F-16 fighter throughout its flight envelope. 604 Chapter 12‘Maneavering and the Flight Envelope Altitude in 1,000 ft A 80 Instantaneous Toad factor, n 60 ! |__| 3 {|__| 40 [Limit speea || __} 0 0 04 08 12 16 2.0 A Mach Number = 60 Sustained |_| load factor, n 7 mp 20 7 Limit speed 9 0 0 04 08 12 16 20 Mech Number Figure 12.18 Instantaneous and Sustained Maneuverability of an F-16 Fighter Chapter 12 605Maneuvering and the Flight Envelope 12.6 STEADY, LEVEL AND COORDINATED TURNS: INSTANTANEOUS AND SUSTAINED Consider an ainplane in a steady, level, coordinated turn. A coordinated turn is one in which the net acceleration in the airplane Y—axis direction is zero (ball in center). Figure 12.19 depicts the geometry and the forces in such a turn. Figure 12.19 Geometry of the Steady, Level Turn Evidently: Lcosp = W (12.48) wv L = : sing rR, (12.49) From the definition of load factor it is also seen that: -L 1 1 ceo (12.50} Upon dividing Fgn (12.49) by Eqn (12.48) it can be shown that the tum radius, R, , becomes: R=“ -_“v_ (12.51) gtand gyn? - 1 606 Chapter 12Maneuvering and the Flight Envelope The tum radius is an important performance parameter for any airplane which must turn to avoid terrain (such as might happen when flying up a box canyon) or Which must turn inside a potential adversary. The latter is particularly of military significance. In that case, the turn rate is also impor- tant. The corresponding turn rate, 1p , follows from: jp =X an (12.52) ‘The situation depicted in Figure 12.19 applies to a sustained tum since the speed V is supposed to be constant in a steady, level turn. The geometry and the forces can however be applied to the instantancous turn, with the understanding that in reality the speed and/or the altitude will bleed off. Sub-section 12.6.1 deals with the instantancous case while 12.6.2 deals with the sustained case. 12.6.1 INSTANTANEOUS TURN An interesting observation from Eqn (12.51) is that the minimum turn radius at any given speed depends only on the maximum load factor which the airplane can develop. This maximum load fac- tor may be determined on an instantaneous basis from Eqn (12.45) or from the insert in Figure 12. ¢ Cham Chany = 1+ dn =1 (12.53) This load factor can be used to estimate the instantaneous tum radius and the corresponding instantaneous turn rate. It is important to recognize the fact that in a turn the stall speed becomes a function of the load factor and thus of the bank angle. The reader is asked to show that the following holds for the instan- taneous stall speed at load factors larger than unity: Vsun = Vs,_,¥ instantaneous (12.54) This is also called the stall speed in turning flight. 12.6.2 SUSTAINED TURN To sustain a turn requires that sufficient thrust (or power) is available to over come the extra in- duced drag generated in a coordinated turn. Ifthe turn is not coordinated, the drag can even be higher because of the non-zero sideslip. Since in a turn the lift is n times that in level flight, the induced drag will be n? times larger! Therefore, in a 2g wrn (corresponding to a 60 degrees bank angle), the induced drag is 4 times larger than in level flight! Equations (12.46) and (12.47) can be used to estimate the thrust (or power) required in a maxi- mum effort, sustained, turn. Figure 12. 20 shows the relationship between speed, turn radius and turn rate in a steady (= sus- tained) level turn, Note the logarithmic nature of the graph. Chapter 12 607‘Maneuvering and the Flight Envelope 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° > = > 10" 20° 30°40" 100,000 == x x 100 30° SS AE 50° NaN . SS -N \— 60° 20" N NI {| fN N NI N N 70° aT NINSIOWN * N N o= 10° ~ my af \ N XN 80° 13,800 x 10,000 NA 10 Tum S Turn radius R rate tp || Rft j/—-—— o Yt Y AT] deg/sec A ~f 21 \ N NI* NLS ho 10 NI XN N 4 100 04 10 100 300 1,000 Speed, V, kts = Figure 12.20 Effect of Speed and Bank Angle on Turn Radius and Rate of Turn 608 Chapter 12Maneuvering and the Flight Envelope As a general rule, the turning performance of an airplane may be limited by four factors: 1) Aerodynamic: stall and/or buffet 2) Structural: positive or negative design limit load factor 3) Thrust or power: maximum available thrust or power, engine temperature limit 4) Inlet: inlet distortions at high angles of attack in high load-factor turns The absolute minimum turn radius which can be achieved in a turn, occurs at the stall speed in the turn, By combining Eqns (12.51) and (12.54) it is found that. a = Vs? Eon tm Pod 8 ye oT (12.55) As the load factor, n, increases, the factor: n / yn? — 1 will decrease and appreach unity, when n —* 20. The absolute minimum tum radius is given by: v2 Reseneenn = = (12.56) The reader should keep in mind the fact that Vg is a constant for a given airplane, at a given weight and altitude. A smaller radius of turn than that given by Eqn (12.56) cannot be achieved im g sustained (steady) level turn, Observe also from Eqn (12.55) that when n = 1 (steady level flight) the turn radius is infinite. ‘These properties are illustrated in Figure 12.21a). Increasing the speed above the turning stall speed will eventually produce a load factor which is equal to or exceeds the design limit load factor from a structural viewpoint, Increasing speed be- yond this point (assuming there is sufficient thrust or power to do this) will make the airplane exceed its structural limit. Design limit load factors were discussed in Section 12.5. When the bank angle and the load factor are held constant to satisfy a given structural limit, the turn radius varies with V2. The intersection of the aerodynamic limit and the structural limit is re- ferred to as the maneuver speed, V, , as shown in Figure 12.21. This is also the maneuver speed used in the Vn diagrams of Figures 12.13, 12.14 and 12.16. Therefore, the maneuver speed, V , is the minimum speed necessary to develop acrodynamical- ly the design limit load factor, nyo, + 2nd it produces the minimum turn radius at the aerodynamic and structural limits simultaneously. Chapter 12 609A Turn Radius R,. ft Rrntwe nn Tur Radius R,, ft Fi; 610 igure 12.21 Limits on Maneuvering Perform: ‘Maneuvering and the Flight Envelope a) Aerodynamic and Structural Limits on Turning Performance Increasing bank angle, Constant bank angle, > Aerodynamic limit Maneuver speed Structural limit Pata = Mpos,.4 Speed, V, kts b) Constant Altitude Turning Performance Increasing bank angle, Decreasing bank angle, A Aerodynamic limit Thrust or power limit is Y, Speed, V, kts Vinimum turn radius” mae -e of Airplanes Chapter 12Maneuvering and the Flight Envelope In these considerations, the maximum lift coefficient was assumed to be independent of the flight speed (or Mach number). In reality this is not the case as the rcader may sce from Figure 12.7. Be- cause of the drop-off in maximum lift coefficient at high Mach numbers, the tum radius at high Mach numbers tends to be thrust limited, rather than structures limited. At the maximum achievable level flight speed, where maximum thrust equals the drag, the tum radius becomes infinite. ‘As the speed is reduced below that for maximum level speed, the parasite drag is reduced while the induced drag is increased. Minimum turn radius turns can now be achieved as limited by thrust or power available. The reader is cautioned again about the fact that the maximum lift coefficient may decrease significantly with Mach number as shown in Figure 12.7. In such a case an iterative solution is indicated. ‘These propertics arc illustrated in Figure 12.21b), Most generally, aerodynamic and structural limit pre-dominate. at low altitude while aerodynamic and thrust(or power) limits pre~dominate at high altitudes. An example application will now be discussed. Example 12.1: — Anairplane is flying straight and level at sea-level and a speed of 300 fi/sec. The pilot puts the airplane in a level, coordinated turn with a radius of 2,850 ff, while maintaining the same angle of attack as the one the airplane had in the straight and level flight condition, The pifot adjusts the engine thrust as required to main— (ain the speed at 300 fU/sec (sustained turn). Without changing the angle of attack or the engine thrust, the pilot next brings the airplane out of the turn, to a wings level climb condition. Estimate the rate of climb, if the lift-to-drag ratio is 9.0. Assume no acceleration along or perpendicular to the flight path in the climb. Solution: In straight and level flight: Live = W a In level, coordinated turning flight: Lamcos = W = Live @) ‘As long as the angle of attack remains the same, the lift-to-drag ratio will remain the same. Therefore: (L/D)um = (L/D) ever 3) Because of (2): ViumeOS = Viner @) Ina steady level tum, according to Eqn (12.51) and using (2): Vin = Vive no ae Rog ‘Therefore: sin = ae = yey ~ 0.9807 : 2x2, ‘The ratio of the thrust required to overcome the drag in the turn to that in level flight is found from: Chapter 12 on612 Maneuvering and the Flight Envelope Tum . Dum 5 Lum 2 1 = 1 54 Trev Dicvet Hever «cos V1 — 0.98072 ° Once the airplane is out of the turn and in the un-accelerated climb condition, the following equations of motion apply: Lgim — Weosy = 0 (8) Teimp — Wsiny — Dems = 0 (9) Elimination of W yields: Latins Tain = Leinntany + Daino = Damo| pantry + 1) (20) Division by: Tioye = Djgyet yields: Tai _ Datimd {Lim palm = Selim ( Scimbtany + 1 aL Tevet Dievet \Dating ap However, the following is also correct, using (3) and (8): Daimy _ DaimbLaims _ Daim Weosy _ Diver — Leimt Liever Latin Devel. Teeepetcosy = cosy (12) Therefore, using (11): Taine Tum = covy( patsy + :) - L (13) di Trevel Tevet tims ‘Next, using (7) and the fact that the lift-to-drag ratio is 9.0 due to the constant angle of attack, it follows that: 5.12 = cosy + 9siny (14) By quadrature it may be shown that this can be re-written as: 82c0s*y — 10.23cosy — 54.79 = 0 (15) From this it follows that: cos y = 0.881 and sin y = 0.474 From (8) it follows that: O.5PVeinvCLagS — O5PVEvaCL,,Scosy = 0 (16) Because the angle of attack is presumed to be constant from level flight to turn= ing flight and then to climbing flight, the lift coctficients are identical. Thus: Cy, = Cr, = Cry,,- Therefore, (16) yields: Vainb = Vieeaveosy = 300/0.881 = 282ft/sec (17) The rate-of-climb, R.C. is thus given by: R.C. = V sin y = 282 x 0.474 = 134 fi/sce = 8,040 ft/min. (Chapter 12Maneuvering und the Flight Envelope 12.7 SPIN Spin entry is usually caused by the stalling of the wing of an airplane. For that reason, the stall characteristics and the associated stability behavior of the airplane at high angles of attack (i.e. high lift coefficients) are important in defining the initial tendencies of an airplane following wing stall. During spins the balance between aerodynamic forces and moments on the one hand and the in- ertial properties of the airplane on the other hand dominate the picture. Because airplanes have large differences in external aerodynamic configuration and internal mass distribution it has not been pos- sible (o arrive at a spin theory which covers all airplanes and which can be used during early design to produce an airplane with "good" spin characteristics. Reference 12.7 contains detailed discus- sions of the spin behavior of various types of airplanes. ‘To understand how an airplane may enter a spin, after a wing has stalled and after disturbances in yaw and rolll have occurred, consider Figure 12.22 and focus on a wing section on the right wing. The yaw rate disturbance, r, is seen by that section as a local increase in forward velocity, Uyay « The roll rate disturbance, p, is seen as a change in vertical velocity, w,.y, . Ifthe reference angle of attack of the airplane is: a, the combined effect of the two disturbances is to increase the local sec- tion angle of attack from cto Gagy, = & + Adtygye » The reader should referto the veetor diagram, in the upper left comer of Figure 12.22. A similar vector diagram on the right of Figure 12.22 shows that for a wing section on the left wing the combined effect of the disturbances is to decrease the local section angle of attack from GO Geg = A ~ Adyn. Next, refertotheC,, — Cp — a plot (Figure 12.22a) for a conventional, low performance air- plane, Such airplanes typically have unswept, moderate aspect ratio wings. Note, that the right (or down-going) wing section experiences a decrease in lift and an increase in drag relative to the refer- ence angle of attack. ‘The left wing section is seen to experience an increase in lift and a decrease in drag relative to the reference angle of attack. Together these forces create moments which will enforce the rolling and yawing (i.e. spinning) of the airplane, The airplane is said to auto-rotate. In conventional, low performance airplane the spinning motion is dominated by rolling with only moderate yawing. This is because the lift changes are stronger than the drag changes. Next, refer to the C,, — Cy — plot (Figure 12.22b) for a highly swept, high performance airplane. The maximum lift coefficient is not very well defined because of the shallow (flat) nature of the lift-curve at high angles of attack. The difference in lift between the right wing and the left wing is very small so that the rolling motion is weak. On the other hand, the drag changes are very large which tends to produce a strong yawing motion. In highly swept, high performance airplane the spinning motion is dominated by yawing with only moderate rolling. This is because the lift changes are weaker than the drag changes. Chapter 12 613Maneuvering and the Flight Envelope Yaw rate, r a) Conventional, low cr performance airplane Cp Down-going wing ren Crigt Angle of attack, a deg gp. b) Highly swept, high performance airplane Angle of attack, a deg ge Figure 12.22 Explanation of Fundamental Spin Characteristics 614 (Chapter 12Maneuvering and the Flight Envelope After the spin is entered, different spin phases may be identified: (1) The incipient phase: this is the non-steady state portion of the spin. It is also referred to as "post-stall gyration”. (2) The developed phase: this is the phase involving abalance between aerodynamic and inertial moments and forces. The situation depicted in Figure 12.22 deals with this phase. (3) The recovery phase: this is another non-steady phase during which the controls are moved to break the steady state, auto-rotation phase. Whether or not the controls are effective in bringing about a recovery from the spin depends on the ability of these controls to generate moments which are sufficient to halt the auto-rotation, Prac- tical experience has shown that the use of the rudder to oppose the spin rotation is often effe in arresting a spin, However, whether or not this works is very strongly dependent on details of the airplane configuration. For more detailed discussions of the effect of configuration on spin behavior the reader is referred to References 12.8, 12.9 and 12.10. In all instances, if the airplane angle of attack can be reduced below that of wing stall, the spin can be arrested. This requires the stick to be moved forward. However, the longitudinal controls are not always sufficiently effective to do this. In the previous discussion, the words "inertial moments’ were used several times. It is useful to examine the general airplane equations of motion of Ref. 12.2, Chapter 1. It is seen that several inertial terms appear in the rolling and yawing moment equations (1.52a) and (1.52c) of Ref. 12.2. In the yawing moment equation (1.52c) of Ref.12.2, the term {(Lax — Iyy)/Iz}pq is of great interest. For high performance airplanes it is generally true that lyy 2 I,,. By exciting the airplane in pitch and roll (to generate positive p and q) a significant inertial yawing acceleration can be gener- ated which can help in arresting the spin. This requires that the stick be moved back. In the rolling moment equation (1.52a) of Ref, 12.2, the term (zz — Iyy)/Ixx|rq_ isnot usually very significant, because in many airplanes Yzz = Tyy . In the pitching moment equation (1.52b) of Ref.12.2, the term ((Ixx — Izz)/Iyy}pr can also be of great interest. For high performance airplanes it is generally true that. > I,x . By exciting the airplane in roll and yaw (p and r) a significant inertial pitching acceleration can be generated which can help in arresting the spin. Whenever the rudder is not very effective in exciting yaw rate, apump- ing mation of the stick may be tried to induce pitching oscillations, which, once large enough can be used to reduce the angle of attack. References 12.9 and 12.10 should be consulted for further information on spin behavior and re- covery. Aerodynamic design for spin prevention was the focus of research reported in Ref, 12.11. (Chapter 12 os