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Vinoth Jebaraj
Simple Design
I Area moment of inertia of the cross section about the axes lying on the section
(i.e. xx and yy)
Why ductile materials fail in 45° plane? Why brittle materials fail in 0° plane?
Image courtesy: Google
Types of Loading
Pure shear
Under pure shear, ductile materials will fail in 0° plane and brittle materials will fail
in 45° plane. Because, at 0° plane shear stress is maximum and at 45° plane normal
stress is maximum.
Eccentric loading
Eccentric load on bolts Eccentric load on crane hook
Thus, theories were formulated to predict this issue, which are known
as failure theories.
Real life examples for Combined loading
Crank Shaft
Side thrust from cylinder
wall, force due to piston
Coupling
Propeller shaft
Tensile and direct shear
Why failure theories?
1 2
3 4
• Principal strain energy strain energy at yield point Utotal = ½ [σy εy]
For Brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in
tension or compression, this theory is generally used.
σ1
Maximum Shear Stress Theory
σ2
σ1
Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky
and Von Mises Theory)
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when
the distortion strain energy (shear strain energy) per unit volume in a biaxial stress
system reaches the limiting distortion energy (distortion energy per unit volume) as
determined from a simple tension test.
= + +
∈ = [ − + ]
∈ = [ − + ]
∈ = [ − + ]
= [( + + ) – 2μ ( + + )]
Total strain energy U = Uv + Ud
Therefore, the corresponding stresses are resolved into three
components
= + ; = + ; = +
∈ +∈ +∈ =
∈ = [ − + ]
∈ = [ − + ]
∈ = [ − + ]
− ( + + )=0 − ≠
Therefore, ( + + )=0
+ + =
Strain energy for volume change Uv = 3
Volumetric Strain ∈ = [ − [ + ]
( )
∈ =
( )
Uv =
Uv =
Ud = U - Uv
( )
Ud = [ − + − + − ]
Distortion strain energy in triaxial loading
( )
Ud = [ − + − + − ]
( )
Ud =
Therefore, Failure criterion is,
( ) ( )
= [ − + − + − ]
= [ − + − + − ]
Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint
Venant’s Theory)
When using plane strain, we assume that the depth is infinite. Thus the effects from
end conditions may be ignored.
Plane Stress
Plane Strain
A long structure with uniform cross section and transverse loading along its length (z –
direction).
Stress Concentration
Variation in properties of
materials
Load application
Machining scratches
Stress concentration in brittle materials
Brittle materials do not yield locally and there is no readjustment of stresses at
the discontinuities. (due to inability of plastic deformation)
When the magnitude of stress reaches the ultimate strength of the material, a
crack will nucleate and increases the stress concentration at the crack.
Why ductile
material fails in a
brittle fashion?
Region indicating slow growth of
crack with a fine fibrous Region of sudden fracture with
appearance a coarse granular appearance
Crack initiation Crack propagation Fracture
Factor of Safety
Number of Stress
cycles amplitude
Stress
Mean stress Fatigue concentration
Residual Corrosion
stresses & creep
Endurance limit or fatigue limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of
completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number
of cycles without fatigue failure.
106 cycles are considered as a sufficient number of cycles to define the endurance limit.
Fatigue life: The total number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can complete
during the test before appearance of the first fatigue crack.
S-N Curve
Examples: Failure of studs on truck wheels, failure of set screws for locating
Examples: Failure of springs, ball bearings and gears that are subjected to
fluctuating stresses.
Effect of stress concentration on fatigue life
Size factor, surface finish factor, load factor, reliability factor, temperature factor,
impact factor
Surface finish factor Ka: It takes into account the reduction in
design of the component. The greater the likelihood that a part will
survive, the more is the reliability and lower is the reliability factor.
Macro observation of the Micro observation of the metal
metal Surface Surface
In case of dynamic loading, if stress concentration present in the material, then it will
reduce the endurance limit.
The actual reduction in the endurance limit of a material due to stress concentration
under dynamic loading is varied by the theoretical values predicted using theoretical stress
concentration factor.
Therefore two separate stress concentration factors are used . i.e. Kt and Kf.
kf = Endurance limit of the notch free specimen / Endurance limit of the notched
specimen
q = Increase of actual stress over nominal stress / Increase of theoretical stress over
nominal stress
Notch sensitivity (q) for different materials
σo = nominal stress obtained by the elementary equations
Theoretical stress = Kt σ0
q=
Kf = 1 + q (Kt – 1)
= + [ ( & )]
= + [ ( & )]
= +
Multiplying throughout by we get,
= +
= +
Multiplying throughout by we get,
= +
= +
Also, P = = = OR =
− − =
The above equation is a quadratic equation. Solving the equation and using the positive sign
for getting maximum value
= + + P=W + +
Where , = shock factor which indicates the magnification of the load W into the impact
force P during impact.
Titanic failure
Why Environment is Important
in Design?
IMPACT LOADING
Design for Strength (Based on permissible shear stress)
Equivalent torque
= + =
Torsional equation
= =
ASME code for shaft design
Permissible shear stress τmax = 0.30 σyt [Or] τmax = 0.18 σut
(whichever is minimum)
Equivalent torque Te = ( ) +( )
Critical speed or Whirling speed of shafts
(Natural frequency of vibration)
The speed at which the rotating shaft becomes dynamically unstable and start to
vibrate violently in transverse direction.
Avoiding Resonance ?
Shafts can be made very rigid with high critical speed which is far away from the
running speed
Rigid & Flexible coupling connecting two shafts having collinear axes.
Cannot tolerate misalignments Can tolerate misalignments Lateral,
Angular (5°) & Axial (5mm)
Simple and inexpensive
Flexible elements absorb shocks and
Motion should be free from vibration
shocks and vibration
Comparatively costlier due to
additional parts
Types of coupling
Clamp coupling (or) Split muff coupling Sleeve coupling
Flange coupling
(Unprotected & Protected )
Rigid Flange Coupling
Bolts fitted in reamed and ground holes
Torque transmitted by the coupling
= × ×
P = Force acting on each bolt
D = Pitch diameter of bolts
N = Number of bolts
Friction radius =
= =
Through this connection the key prevents relative rotation between the two parts
and allows torque to be transmitted through.
The whole system is called a keyed joint. Commonly keyed components include
gears, pulleys, and couplings.
Types of keys
Stress analysis of a key
Gear
Reaction Torque
Torque Applied
Key
Shaft
A key has two failure mechanisms.
Note: Two parallel keys can be used either 90° or 180° apart from each other if the shaft
connection needs to be more robust.
Design of Helical Springs
Flexible machine element Absorb energy regains its original shape after
removing load
To take care of the curvature effect, the earlier equation for maximum shear
stress in the spring wire is modified as,
Where, KW is Wahl correction factor, which takes care of both curvature effect and
shear stress correction factor and is expressed as
Angle of twist θ=
Where, T = Torque ( ) ; θ = Angle of twist; l = length of the bar; J = Polar moment of
inertia; G = Modulus of rigidity
[ ]
Angle of twist θ=
[ ]
θ=
The axial deflection ‘δ’ of the spring, for small values of θ,
δ=θ( )
Therefore,
Axial deflection δ=
= ; = + [ ]
+
Types of Springs
Subjected to millions of
stress cycles during its
lifetime.
Mean force Pm =
.
Amplitude shear stress = , = +
K = Wahl stress factor, which takes into consideration the effect of direct shear stress as
well as stress concentration due to curvature.
Pulsating stress cycle
−
+ =
This equation is used in the design of springs
subjected to fluctuating stresses.
Concentric springs
Maximum torsional shear stresses induced in outer and inner springs are equal.
Both springs are having same free length and deflected by the same amount.
Therefore,
Concentric springs
Solid length of the outer spring = solid length
In concentric spring, of the inner spring
= =
= [ ] =[ ]
For the time being, neglect the effect of Wahl factor and [ ] =[ ]
assume K1 = K2 Therefore,
= =
[ ] =[ ] =
[ ] =[ ] = =
When both springs are completely compressed, their The load shared by each spring is proportional
adjacent coils touch each other. to the cross section area of wire.
Surge in springs
Wave of successive compressions of coils that travels from one end to other end and
back vibratory motion (surge)
Time required for the wave to travel from one end to other end = Time interval between
load applications
Solid length = N× d
P P
2P
Act as a structural member and carry lateral loads, brake torque, driving torque etc., in
addition to shocks.
For the purpose of analysis, Leaves are divided into two groups.
Non uniform width leaf is a better design than a uniform width leaf.
Portion of load P taken by
graduated length leaves
= =
Deflection
= =
Graduated length leaves as triangular plate
Portion of load P taken by extra
full length leaves
= =
Deflection
= =
Extra full length leaves as rectangular plate
Since the deflection of full length leaves is equal to the deflection of graduated length leaves,
=
+ =
Therefore,
= and =
= and =
=
( + )
Nipping of leaf springs
Stresses in extra full length leaves are greater than the graduated length leaves.
One of the methods of equalising the stresses in different leaves is to pre-stress the spring. It
is achieved by different radii of curvature is known as ‘nipping’.
Used in plate clutches and brakes, relief valves and gun recoil
mechanisms.
Disc type flywheel Rim type flywheel
Power Smoothening
Power output +
Power Input
Mechanical losses
System
Power Input
Power Output +
Losses
Speed of the machine
speed
gradually increases
Time Time
IC
Generator Punching
Engine Motor
machine
Output power
is constant
Output power
Input Power is variable
Output Power
Ideal steady
operation
Fluctuation of Energy
If the arms are stretched enough to allow free expansion of the rim due to centrifugal
action, there will be no restraint due to the arms σb will be zero.
Arms of a flywheel stretch about 3/4th of the amount necessary for free expansion
[Lanza]
STRESSES IN FLYWHEEL ARMS
Bending stress due to the torque transmitted from the rim to the shaft
Welded joints are permanent fasteners which are
obtained by the fusion of edges of the two parts to be
joined together, with or without the application of
pressure and a filler material.
h
Double parallel fillet welded Joints
A steel plate, 100mm wide and 10mm thick is welded to another steel plate by means
of double parallel fillet welds. The plates are subjected to a static tensile force of 50 kN.
Determine the required length of the welds if the permissible shear stress in the weld is
94 N/mm2 .
L
Single transverse double parallel fillet welded Joints
Throat section
A plate, 75mm wide and 10 mm thick, is joined with another steel plate by means of
subjected to
single transverse and double parallel fillet welds. The joint is subjected to a maximum
shear stress
tensile force of 55 kN. The permissible tensile and shear stresses in the weld material are
70 and 50N/mm2 . Determine the required length of each parallel fillet weld.
Axially loaded unsymmetrical welded Joints
P1
P2
P = P1 + P2
Under equilibrium, the moment of the forces about the C.G. is equal to zero.
P1×a = P2×b
Determine the size of the welds if the permissible shear stress for the weld is 100
N/mm2. Assume static conditions.
50
50
150
7.5 KN
Eccentric load in the plane of welds
P
= ×r
Screw Joint: fixed into a threaded hole in one of the component being assembled not in a
nut.
Stud Joint: cylindrical rod threaded at both ends. One end of stud is screwed to nut and the
other end is screwed into connecting components.
Nomenclature of the Threads
Bolt of uniform strength
Each bolt is stretched by an amount ‘δ’ which is proportional to its vertical distance from
the point ‘C’.
and
= and =
Pe=2 +
= and =
( ) ( )
P
Preload: When the nut is initially tightened, the bolt is subjected to
an initial tension, which is called preload (Pi).
Under the action of preload, the bolt is elongated by an amount δb
and the two parts are compressed by an amount of δc.
∆ ∆
Stiffness of the bolt Kb = Stiffness of the component Kc =
∆ ∆
Rivet Parts
Method of Riveting
Caulking and Fullering: To make the joints leak proof or fluid tight.
Caulking tool closes the surface asperities and cracks on the contacting surfaces between
two plates and also between the rivet and the plates, resulting in leak proof joints.
Fullering is similar to caulking except the shape of the tool. The blows of the fullering tool
result in simultaneous pressure on the entire edge of the plate.
Pitch [P]. It is the distance from the centre of one rivet to the centre of the next rivet
measured parallel to the seam.
Back pitch [Pb]. It is the perpendicular distance between the centre lines of the successive
rows.
Diagonal pitch [Pd]. It is the distance between the centres of the rivets in adjacent rows of
zig-zag riveted joint.
Triple Riveted Lap Joint
Single riveted double strap butt joint Double riveted double strap (equal) butt joint
Crushing of a Rivet
Shearing off a rivet in double cover butt joint
Strength equations for riveted joints
The strength of the unriveted or solid plate, P = p × t × σt = 100 × 20 × 120 = 240 000 N
,
Efficiency of the joint = = 0.625 or 62.5%
1. Thickness of the vessel
t= +
2. Diameter of rivets (If t > 8mm then use Unwin’s
formula)
=
3. Pitch of the rivets (According to IBR)
pmin = 2d
pmax =Ct + 41.28
pt = 0.2p + 1.15d (distance between outer and middle row)
pt=0.165p+0.67d (distance between middle and inner row)
Margin m = 1.5d
4. Thickness of straps
t1= 0.625t [ ]
5. Efficiency of the joint
,
Efficiency of the joint =
Eccentrically loaded riveted Joints in shear
Direct load ‘P’ at C.G results in primary shear forces P1’, P2’, P3’, P4’ (Reaction
forces).
The moment at C.G results in secondary shear forces P1’’, P2’’, P3’’, P4’’
Secondary shear force at any rivet is proportional to its distance from the C.G.
.
=
+ + +
. .
P1’’=
Design of Connecting Rod
Small End
Bolt
Castle Nut
Transmits reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion of the crank shaft
Buckling of Connecting Rod
Buckling in the plane of motion (Ends are Hinged) (n = 1)
Buckling in the plane perpendicular to the plane of motion (Ends are fixed) (n = 4)
Connecting rod is four times stronger for buckling about the YY axis as compared to
the buckling about the XX axis.
Therefore, for equal resistant to buckling in both the planes, Ixx = 4 Iyy
B = 4t
Y Width of ‘B’ is kept constant
throughout the length of the
connecting rod
t
Height ‘H’ varies from the big end to
t small end
H = 5t At the middle section,
X X H= 5t
At the small end,
H1 = 0.75 H to 0.9 H
At the big end,
H2 = 1.1H to 1.25H
t
φ
θ
CRANK PC
P = Pc ∅ P
=
∅
=
Step II: Critical buckling load
= [FOS = 5 OR 6]
Plain carbon steels 40C8, 45C8 and 50C4, Alloy steels 16Ni3Cr2, 35Ni5Cr2 and
40Ni10Cr3Mo6
Overhung crank
Has two crank webs and three bearings
Has one crank web and two
bearings
More popular in automotive engines
Used in medium size engines and
Used in radial aircraft engines, and
large size horizontal engines
marine engines
Piston: To receive the impulse from the expanding gas and to transmit the energy
to the crank shaft through the connecting rod.
Heat
Head
High Strength dissipation
capacity
Rings
Resistance to
Effective sealing
distortion
High wear
resistance
Cast iron Piston Aluminium Piston
To withstand the straining action due to the pressure of explosion inside the engine
cylinder
Acts as a seal between the piston and Provide proper lubrication to the liner
cylinder bore
The axial thickness (t2) of the rings may be taken as 0.7 t1 to t1.
The minimum axial thickness (t2) may also be obtained from the following
empirical relation
Piston Barrel
Maximum thickness of the piston barrel
Bearing pressure on the piston barrel due to side thrust does not exceed 0.25 N/mm2.
Bearing pressure on the piston barrel due to side thrust does not exceed 0.5 N/mm2.
Piston pin
Full floating type Semi floating type
Design check for bending:
Piston failures
Damage From Running Unmixed Fuel Damage From Detonation
Damage From Debris Getting Through the Air Damage From Heat Seizure
Filter
DESIGN OF KNUCKLE JOINT
Collar
Taper Pin
Eye
Fork
Knuckle Pin
The modes of failure are :
Q. Design a knuckle joint to transmit 150 kN. The design stresses may be taken as 75 MPa in
tension, 60 MPa in shear and 150 MPa in compression.