Fulvous whistling duck

The fulvous whistling duck or fulvous tree duck (Dendrocygna bicolor) is a

Fulvous whistling duck
whistling duck that breeds across the world's tropical regions in much of Mexico
and South America, the West Indies, the Southern United States, sub-Saharan
Africa and the Indian subcontinent. It has plumage that is mainly reddish brown,
long legs and a long grey bill, and shows a distinctive white band across its black
tail in flight. Like other members of its ancient lineage, it has a whistling call
which is given in flight or on the ground. Its preferred habitat consists of wetlands
with plentiful vegetation, including shallow lakes andpaddy fields. The nest, built
from plant material and unlined, is placed among dense vegetation or in a tree
hole. The typical clutch is around ten whitish eggs. The breeding adults, which
Adult at the Wilhelma zoological and
pair for life, take turns to incubate, and the eggs hatch in 24–29 days. The downy
grey ducklings leave the nest within a day or so of hatching, but the parents botanical gardens in Stuttgart
continue to protect them until theyfledge around nine weeks later. Conservation status
The fulvous whistling duck feeds in wetlands by day or night on seeds and other
parts of plants. It is sometimes regarded as a pest of rice cultivation, and is also
shot for food in parts of its range. Despite hunting, poisoning by pesticides and
natural predation by mammals, birds and reptiles, the large numbers and huge
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1 )[1]
range of this duck mean that it is classified as least concern by the International Scientific classification
Union for Conservation of Nature.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Contents Order: Anseriformes
Taxonomy
Family: Anatidae
Description
Genus: Dendrocygna
Distribution and habitat
Behaviour Species: D. bicolor
Breeding
Binomial name
Feeding
Dendrocygna bicolor
Status
(Vieillot, 1816)
Notes
References
Cited texts
External links

Taxonomy
Approximate breeding range
The whistling ducks, Dendrocygna, are a distinctive group of eight bird species
within the duck, goose and swan family, Anatidae, which are characterised by a
hump-backed, long-necked appearance and the whistled flight calls that give them their English name.[2] They were an early split
from the main duck lineage,[3] and were predominant in the Late Miocene before the subsequent extensive radiation of more modern
forms in the Pliocene and later.[4] The fulvous whistling duck forms a superspecies with the wandering whistling duck. It has no
recognised subspecies, although the birds in northern Mexico and the southern US have in the past been assigned to D. b. helva,[5]
described as having paler and brighter underparts and a lighter crown thanD. b. bicolor.[6]

The duck was first described by Johann Friedrich Gmelinin 1789 and given the name Anas fulva but the name was "preoccupied," or
already used, by Friedrich Christian Meuschen in 1787 for another species.[7][a] This led to the next available name proposed by
French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1816 from a Paraguayan specimen as Anas bicolor.[9][b] The whistling ducks were
moved to their current genus, Dendrocygna, by British ornithologist William John Swainson in recognition of their differences from
other ducks.[10] The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek dendron, "tree", and Latin cygnus, "swan",[11] and bicolor is
Latin for "two-coloured".[12] "Fulvous" means reddish-yellow, and is derived from the Latin equivalent fulvus.[13] Old and regional
names include large whistling teal,[5] brown tree duck, Mexican duck, pichiguila, squealer and Spanish cavalier.[14]

Description
The fulvous whistling duck is 45–53 cm (18–21 in) long; the male weighs 748–1,050 g (26.4–37.0 oz), and the female averages
marginally lighter at 712–1,000 g (25.1–35.3 oz).[5] It is a long-legged duck, mainly golden-brown with a darker back and an obvious
blackish line down the back of its neck. It has whitish stripes on its flanks, a long grey bill and grey legs. In flight, the wings are
brown above and black below, with no white markings, and a white crescent on the rump contrasts with the black tail.[15][16] All
plumages are fairly similar, but the female is slightly smaller and duller-plumaged than the male. The juvenile has paler underparts,
and appears generally duller, especially on the flanks.[5] There is a complete wing moult after breeding, and birds then seek the cover
of dense wetland vegetation while they are flightless. Body feathers may be moulted throughout the year; each feather is replaced
only once annually.[17]

These are noisy birds with a clear whistling kee-wee-ooo call given on the ground or in flight. Quarrelling birds also have a harsh
repeated kee. In flight, the beating wings produce a dull sound.[18] The calls of males and females show differences in structure and
[19]
an acoustic analysis on 59 captive birds demonstrated 100% accuracy in sexing when compared with molecular methods.

Adult birds in Asia can be confused with the similar lesser whistling duck, which is smaller, has a blackish crown and lacks an
obvious dark stripe down the back of the neck. Juvenile fulvous whistling ducks are very like young lesser whistling ducks, but the
crown colour is still a distinction. Juvenile comb ducks are bulkier than whistling ducks and have a dark cap to the head. In South
America and Africa, juvenile white-faced whistling ducks are separable from fulvous by their dark crowns, barred flanks and
chestnut breasts.[18]

In flight, showing black-and-white tail pattern

Distribution and habitat

The fulvous whistling duck has a very large range extending across four continents. It breeds in lowland South America from
northern Argentina to Colombia and then up to the southern US and the West Indies. It is found in a broad belt across sub-Saharan
Africa and down the east of the continent to South Africa and Madagascar. The Indian subcontinent is the Asian stronghold.[18] It
undertakes seasonal movements in response to the availability of water and food. African birds move southwards in the southern
summer to breed and return north in the winter, and Asian populations are highly nomadic due to the variability of rainfall.[18] This
species has strong colonising tendencies, having expanded its range in Mexico, the
US and the West Indies in recent decades. Wandering birds can turn up far beyond
[5]
the normal range, sometimes staying to nest, as in Morocco, Peru and Hawaii.

The fulvous whistling duck is found in lowland marshes and swamps in open, flat
country, and it avoids wooded areas. It is particularly attracted to wetlands with
plenty of emergent vegetation, including rice fields.[18] It is not normally a mountain
species, breeding in Venezuela, for example, only up 300 m (980 ft),[16] but the
[5]
single Peruvian breeding record was at 4,080 m (13,390 ft). A flock at Pallikaranai wetland, India

Behaviour
This species is usually found in small groups, but substantial flocks can form at
favoured sites. It walks well, without waddling, and normally feeds by upending,
though it can dive if necessary.[18] It does not often perch in trees, unlike other
whistling ducks. It flies at low altitude with slow wingbeats and trailing feet, in
loose flocks rather than tight formation. It feeds during the day and at night in fairly
large flocks, often with other whistling duck species, but rests or sleeps in smaller
groups in the middle of the day.[17] They are noisy and display their aggression
towards other individuals by throwing back their heads. Before taking off in alarm, Adult in the London Wetland Centre
collection
they often shake their head sideways.[20]

Several arthropod parasites have been recorded on this duck, including chewing
mites of the families Philopteridae and Menoponidae,[21][22] feather mites and skin mites. Internal helminth parasites include
roundworms, tapeworms and flukes. In a survey in Florida, all 30 ducks tested carried at least two helminth species; none had blood
parasites. Only one duck had no mites or lice.[23]

Breeding
Breeding coincides with the availability of water
. In South America and South Africa, the main nesting period is December–February
,
in Nigeria it is July–December, and in North America mid-May–August.[5] In India, the breeding season is from June to October but
peaking in July and August.[24] Fulvous whistling ducks show lifelong monogamy; the courtship display is limited to some mutual
head-dipping before mating and a short dance after copulation in which the birds raise their bodies side-by-side while treading
water.[17]

Pairs may breed alone or in loose groups. In South Africa, nests may be within 50 m (160 ft) of each other, and breeding densities of
up to 13.7 nests per square kilometre (35.5 per square mile) have been found in Louisiana. The nest, 19–26 cm (7.5–10.2 in) across,
is made from plant leaves and stems and has little or no soft lining. It is usually built in dense vegetation and close to water,[5][16] but
sometimes in tree holes. In India, the use of tree holes, and even the old nests of raptors or crows, is much more common than
elsewhere.[18] Eggs are laid at roughly 24- to 36-hour intervals, starting before the nest is complete, resulting in some losses from the
[17] The clutch is
clutch. They are whitish and on average measure 53.4 mm × 40.7 mm (2.10 in × 1.60 in) and weigh 50.4 g (1.78 oz).
usually around ten eggs, but other females sometimes lay into the nest, so 20 or more may be found on occasion.[5] Eggs may also be
added to the nests of other species, likeruddy duck.[25]

Both sexes incubate, changing over once a day, with the male often taking the greater share of this duty. The eggs hatch in about 24–
29 days,[5] The downy ducklings are grey, with paler upperparts,[17] and a white band on the neck,[14] and weigh 22–38 g (0.78–
1.34 oz) within a day of hatching. Like all ducklings, they are precocial and leave the nest after a day or so, but the parents protect
them until they fledge around nine weeks later.[5] Eggs and duckling may be preyed on by mammals, birds and reptiles; one parent
may try to distract a potential predator with a broken-wing display while the other adult leads the ducklings away.[17] Birds are
sexually mature after one year, and the maximum known age is 6.5 years.[5]
In South Africa, a few records of hybridization with the white-faced whistling duckhave been noted in the wild;[26][27] in most parts
of southern Africa, the two species breed at different times, bicolor during the dry season (April to September) andviduata during the
rains (October to March).[28] Hybridization in captivity is more frequent but limited to other species in the genus
Dendrocygna.[29][30]

Feeding
The fulvous whistling duck feeds in wetlands by day or night, often in mixed flocks with
relatives such as white-faced or black-bellied whistling ducks. Its food is generally plant
material, including seeds, bulbs, grasses and stems, but females may include animal items
such as aquatic worms, molluscs and insects as they prepare for egg-laying, which may then
comprise up to 4% of their diet. Ducklings may also eat a few insects. Foraging is by picking
plant items while walking or swimming, by upending, or occasionally by diving to a depth of
up to 1 m (3.3 ft). Favoured plants includewater snowflake, aquatic ragweeds, bourgou millet,
shama grass, Cape blue water lily, waxy-leaf nightshade, beakrush, flatsedge and polygonums.
Rice is normally a small part of the diet, and a survey in Cuban rice fields found that the
plants taken were mainly weeds growing with the crop. However, in a study in Louisiana,
[5] Long legs enable the duck
25% of the diet of incubating females consisted of cereal.
to stand erect and walk
without waddling.
Status
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) estimates the population of the fulvous whistling duck to be from 1.3–
1.5 million individuals around the world.[1] This may be an underestimate since regional assessments suggest 1 million birds in the
Americas, 1.1 million in Africa and at least 20,000 in South Asia for a grand total of 2.12 million ducks around the world.[17] The
population appears to be declining, but the decrease is not rapid enough to trigger the vulnerability criteria for extinction. The large
numbers and huge breeding range mean that this duck is classified by the IUCN as being of Least Concern.[1] It is one of the species
to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.[31]

The fulvous whistling duck has expanded its range in the West Indies, and into the southern US.[18] A series of invasions from South
America and reaching the eastern US commenced around 1948, fueled by rice cultivation, and breeding was recorded in Cuba in
1964,[17] and Florida in 1965. Some Florida birds still winter in Cuba.[32] In Africa, it bred on the Cape Peninsula between 1940 and
the 1960s. A survey of eighteen species which had colonised the area in recent decades found that most were wetland species that had
used irrigated farmland as "stepping stones" across the arid country separating the peninsula from the breeding main range. However,
the status of the two whistling duck species featured in the research is dubious since they are popular ornamental species, so their
origin is unclear.[33]

Outside North America it is subject to hunting for food or because of its liking for rice, and persecution means that it is now rare in
Madagascar. Pesticides used on rice fields may also have an adverse impact,[5] causing liver and breast muscle damage even at sub-
lethal levels.[34]

Notes
a. Scientific names are given in accordance with strict chronological priority
, so Gmelin's name could not be used since
it had previously allocated to another species. The identity of the duck designated asAnas fulva by Meuschen is not
known. [8]

b. Le Canard roux et noir

References
1. BirdLife International (2016). "Dendrocygna bicolor" (http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22679746/0). IUCN Red List of
 Threatened Species. IUCN. 2016: e.T22679746A92827620.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-
3.RLTS.T22679746A92827620.en(https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22679746A92827620.en).
Retrieved 25 February 2018.
2. Madge & Burn (1988) p. 124.
3. Feduccia (1999) p. 219.
4. Agnolin, Federico; Tomassini, Rodrigo L (2012). "A fossil Dendrocygninae (Aves, Anatidae) from the early Pliocene
of the Argentine Pampas and its paleobiogeographical implications"(https://www.academia.edu/3060706/A_fossil_D
endrocygninae_Aves_Anatidae_from_de_Early_Pliocene_of_the_Argentine_Pampas_and_its_paleobiogeographical
_implications). Annales de Paléontologie. 98 (3): 191–201. doi:10.1016/j.annpal.2012.06.001(https://doi.org/10.101
6%2Fj.annpal.2012.06.001).
5. Hoyo, Josep del; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A (eds.).
"Fulvous Whistling-duck"(http://www.hbw.c
om/species/fulvous-whistling-duck-dendrocygna-bicolor) . Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions.
Retrieved 17 March 2014. (subscription required)
6. Wetmore, Alexander; Peters, James L (1922). "A new genus and four new subspecies of American birds"(http://bios
tor.org/reference/83642.text). Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington. 35: 41–46.
7. Allen, J A; Richmond, C W; Brewster, W; Dwight, J. Jr; Merriam, C H; Ridgway, R; Stone, W (1908). "Fourteenth
Supplement to the American Ornithologists' Union Check-List of North American Birds" (https://archive.org/stream/su
pplementtocode00amer#page/362/mode/2up/) . The Auk. 25 (3): 343–399. doi:10.2307/4070558 (https://doi.org/10.2
307%2F4070558). JSTOR 4070558 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4070558).
8. Pollock, Andrew W (2012).Binomial and Trinomial Index to the Auk, 1884-1920. Also including the Nuttall Bulletin,
1876-1883 and the A.O.U. Check-List of North American Birds (all Seven Editions)
(http://www.numismalink.com/bird
s/2nd.draft.A.thru.B.pdf#page=253)(PDF). 1. p. 253.
9. Vieillot (1816) pp. 136–137 (https://archive.org/stream/nouveaudictionn21agrgoog#page/n155/mode/1up)
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10. Swainson (1837) p. 365 (https://books.google.com/books?id=goJIAAAA
YAAJ&pg=PA365).
11. Jobling (2010) pp. 128, 133.
12. Jobling (2010) p. 72.
13. "Fulvous" (http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/75400?redirectedFrom=fulvous&). Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford
University Press. Retrieved 17 March 2014.(subscription required)
14. Phillips (1922) pp. 128–129. (https://archive.org/stream/naturalhistoryof01phil#page/128/mode/2up)
15. Barlow et al. (1997) p. 135.
16. Hilty (2003) p. 195.
17. Kear (2005) pp. 199–202.
18. Madge & Burn (1988) pp. 126–127.
19. Volodin, Ilya; Kaiser, Martin; Matrosova, Vera; Volodina, Elena; Klenova, Anna; Filatova, Olga; Kholodova, Marina
(2009). "The technique of noninvasive distant sexing for four monomorphicDendrocygna whistling duck species by
their loud whistles" (http://bioacoustica.org/publ/papers/163_Volodin_et_al_2009_Bioacoustics.pdf)(PDF).
Bioacoustics. 18 (3): 277–290. doi:10.1080/09524622.2009.9753606(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09524622.2009.97
53606).
20. Johnsgard (1965) pp. 16–20
21. McDaniel, Burruss; Tuff, Donald; Bolen, Eric (1966). "External parasites of the Black-bellie
d Tree Duck and other
dendrocygnids". The Wilson Bulletin. 78 (4): 462–468. JSTOR 4159536 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4159536).
22. Arnold, Don C (2006). "Review of the genusAcidoproctus (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera: Philopteridae), with description
of a new species". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society. 79 (3): 272–282. doi:10.2317/0509.26.1 (https://doi.
org/10.2317%2F0509.26.1). JSTOR 25086333 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/25086333).
23. Forrester, Donald J; Kinsella, John M; Mertins, James W; Price, Roger D; Turnbull, Richard E (1994)."Parasitic
helminths and arthropods of Fulvous Whistling-DucksDendrocygna
( bicolor) in Southern Florida" (http://bionames.or
g/bionames-archive/issn/1049-233X/61/84.pdf)(PDF). Journal of the Helminthological Society of W ashington. 61 (1):
84–88.
24. Ali & Ripley (1978) pp. 139–141.
25. Shields, A M (1899). "Nesting of the Fulvous T
ree Duck". Cooper Ornithological Society. 1 (1): 9–11.
doi:10.2307/1360784 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1360784). JSTOR 1360784 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1360784).
26. Harebottle, Doug; Vanderwalt, Brian (2014)."Hybridisation between White-faced and Fulvous Ducks in the wild:
further evidence from South Africa"(http://oo.adu.org.za/pdf/OO_2014_05_017-021.pdf)(PDF). Ornithological
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27. Clark, A (1974). "HybridDendrocygna viduata x Dendrocygna bicolor". Ostrich. 45 (4): 255.
doi:10.1080/00306525.1974.9634068(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00306525.1974.9634068) .
28. Siegfried, W Roy (1973)."Morphology and ecology of the southern African whistling ducksDendrocygna)"
( (https://s
ora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v090n01/p0198-p0201.pdf)
(PDF). The Auk. 90 (1): 198–201.
29. Kear (2005) p. 188.
30. Johnsgard, Paul A (1960)."Hybridization in the Anatidae and its taxonomic implications"(https://sora.unm.edu/sites/
default/files/journals/condor/v062n01/p0025-p0033.pdf)(PDF). Condor. 62 (1): 25–33. doi:10.2307/1365656 (https://
doi.org/10.2307%2F1365656). JSTOR 1365656 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1365656).
31. "Annex 2: Waterbird species to which the Agreement applies" (https://www.webcitation.org/614hdkeBw?url=http://ww
w.unep-aewa.org/documents/agreement_text/eng/pdf/aewa_agreement_text_annex2.pdf)(PDF). Agreement on the
conservation of African-Eurasian migratory Waterbirds (AEWA). AEWA. Archived from the original (http://www.unep-
aewa.org/documents/agreement_text/eng/pdf/aewa_agreement_text_annex2.pdf) (PDF) on 20 August 2011.
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32. Turnbull, Richard E; Johnson, Fred A; Brakhage, David H (1989). "Status, distribution, and foods of Fulvous
Whistling-Ducks in South Florida".The Journal of Wildlife Management. 53 (4): 1046–1051. doi:10.2307/3809607 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.2307%2F3809607). JSTOR 3809607 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3809607).
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CH.2009.80.1.4.762).
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Cited texts
Ali, Salim; Ripley, Dillon S (1978). Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 1 (2nd ed.). New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.
Barlow, Clive; Wacher, Tim; Disley, Tony (1997). A Field Guide to birds of The Gambia and Senegal . Boroughbridge,
Sussex: Pica Press. ISBN 1-873403-32-1.
Feduccia, Alan (1999).The Origin and Evolution of Birds. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.
ISBN 978-0-300-07861-9.
Hilty, Steven L (2003). Birds of Venezuela. London: Christopher Helm.ISBN 0-7136-6418-5.
Jobling, James A (2010).The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm.ISBN 978-1-
4081-2501-4.
Johnsgard, Paul (1965).Handbook of Waterfowl Behavior. Ithaca, New York: Comstock Publishing Associates.
Kear, Janet (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-854645-0.
Madge, Steve; Burn, Hilary (1988).Wildfowl: An Identification Guide to the Ducks, Geese and Swans of the World
(Helm Identification Guides). London: Christopher Helm.ISBN 0-7470-2201-1.
Phillips, John Charles (1922).A Natural History of the Ducks. 1. Cambridge: Houghton Mifflin.
Swainson, William (1837).On the Natural History and Classification of Birds . 2. London: Longman, Rees, Orme,
Brown, Green & Longman.
Vieillot, Louis Jean Pierre (1816).Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle(in French). 5. Paris: Deterville.

External links
Fulvous Whistling-duck videosat the Internet Bird Collection
Tribe Dendrocygnini (Whistling or Tree Ducks) from Johnsgard, Paul A.Ducks, Geese, and Swans of the World
Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Calls at Xeno-canto

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