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The development of a high performance, long life Spark plug has become
essential in response to these demands. While improve performance (high
ignitability and low required voltage), the discharge part of the Spark plug needs to
be reduced in size. But, in the past this has been difficult because of the limitations
in terms of wear. It has been difficult to achieve both smaller discharge parts and
longer life. To dramatically improve wear resistance, we researched materials that
are both resistant to oxidation and have a high melting point.
INTRODUCTION
Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION
SPARK PLUG
That is, they must be able to withstand leaner combustion, higher pressure,
stronger swirling, and large quantities of EGR(exhaust gas recirculation). This
in turn will increase the required voltage and worsen the ignitability environment.
A Spark plug is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to
the combustion chamber of a spark ignition engine to ignite the compressed
air/fuel mixture by an electric spark, while containing combustion pressure within
the engine. A spark plug has metal threaded shell, electrically isolated from a
central electrode by a porcelain insulator.
The central electrode, which may contain a resistor, is connected by a
heavily insulated wire to the output terminal of an ignition coil or magneto. The
spark plugs metal shell is screwed into the engine’s cylinder head and thus
electrically grounded. The central electrode protrudes through the porcelain
insulator into the combustion chamber, forming one or more spark gaps between
the inner end of the central electrode and usually one or more protuberances or
structures attached to the inner end of the threaded shell and designated the side,
earth or ground electrode.
Spark plugs may also be used for other purposes in Saab Direct Ignition
when they are not firing, spark plugs are used to measure ionization in the
cylinders this ionic current measurement is used to replace the ordinary cam phase
sensor, knock sensor and misfire measurement function. Spark plugs may also be
used in other applications such as furnaces wherein a combustible air/fuel mixture
must be ignited. In this case, they are sometimes referred to as flame igniters.
Spark plugs are under constant chemical, thermal, physical and electrical attack by
corrosive gases at 4500 degrees Fahrenheit, crushing pressure of 2000 pounds per
square inch (PSI), and electrical discharges up to 18000 volts. This unrelenting
assault under the hood of a typical automobile occurs dozens of times per second
and over a million times in a day’s worth of driving.
The spark plug evolved with the internal combustion engine, but the earliest
demonstration of the use of an electric spark plug to ignite a fuel-air mixture was in
1777 In that year, Alessandro Volta loaded a toy piston with a mixture of marsh
gas and air, corked the muzzle, and ignites the charge with a spark from a Ley den
jar In 1860, French engineer Jean Lenoir created what most closely resembles the
spark plug of today.
In the early 1900s, Robert and Frank Stranahan, brothers and partners in an
automobile parts importing business, set out to produce a more efficient and
durable spark plug. They added gaskets between the metal shell and porcelain
insulator, made manufacturing easier, and reduced the possibility of gas leakage
past the gaskets. In 1909, Robert Stranahan sold the plug to one automobile
manufacturer and went into the spark plug manufacturing business, cornering the
market at that time. The industry exploded as the age of the automobile opened.
Eventually, variation in ignition systems, fuel, and performance requirements
placed new demands on spark plugs. Although the basic design and function of the
plug has changed little since its inception, a staggering variety and number of
electrode and insulator materials have been tried.
RAW MATERIALS
The electrodes in a spark plug typically consist of high-nickel alloys, while the
insulator is generally made of aluminum oxide ceramic and the shell is made of
steel wire. Selections of materials for both the electrodes and the insulator have
consumed much research and development time and cost. One major spark plug
manufacturer claims to have tested 2000 electrode materials and over 25000
insulator combinations. As electrodes erode, the gap between them widens and it
takes more voltage than the ignition system can provide to fire them. High-nickel
alloys have been improved and thicker electrodes have been used to reduce engine
performance loss. In addition, precious and exotic metals are increasingly being
used by manufacturers. Many modern plugs feature silver, gold and platinum in the
electrodes, not to mention center electrodes with copper cores. Silver has superior
thermal conductivity over other electrode metals, while platinum has excellent
Corrosion resistance.
Insulator material also can have a dramatic effect on spark plug
performance. Research continues to find a material that better reduces flashover, or
electrical leakage, from the plug’s terminal to the shell. The breakthrough use of
sillimanite, a material that is found in a natural state and also produced artificially,
has been succeeded by the use of more heat resistant aluminum oxide ceramics, the
composition of which are manufacturer’s secrets. One major manufacturer’s
process for making the insulator involves wet grinding batches of ceramic pellets
in ball mills, under carefully controlled conditions. Definite size and shape of the
pellets produce the free flowing substance needed to make a quality insulator. The
pellets are obtained through a rigid spray drying operation that removes the water
from the ceramic mixture, until it is ready for pouring into molds.
A spark plug is composed of a shell, insulator and the central conductor. It passes
through the wall of the combustion chamber and therefore must also seal the
combustion chamber against high pressures and temperatures without deteriorating
over long periods of time and extended use. Spark plugs are specified by size,
either thread or nut (often referred to as Euro), sealing type (taper or crush washer),
and spark gap. Common thread (nut) sizes in Europe are 10 mm (16 mm), 14 mm
(21 mm; sometimes, 16 mm), and 18 mm (24 mm, sometimes, 21 mm). In the
United States, common thread (nut) sizes are 10mm (16mm), 12mm (14mm,
16mm or 17.5mm), 14mm (16mm, 20.63mm) and 18mm (20.63mm).
PARTS OF THE PLUG
Terminal
The top of the spark plug contains a terminal to connect to the ignition system. The
exact terminal construction varies depending on the use of the spark plug. Most
passenger car spark plug wires snap onto the terminal of the plug, but some wires
have eyelet connectors which are fastened onto the plug under a nut. Plugs which
are used for these applications often have the end of the terminal serve a double
purpose as the nut on a thin threaded shaft so that they can be used for either type
of connection.
Insulator
The main part of the insulator is typically made from sintered alumina, a very hard
ceramic material with high dielectric strength, printed with the manufacturer’s
name and identifying marks, and then glazed to improve resistance to surface spark
tracking. Its major functions are to provide mechanical support and electrical
insulation for the central electrode, while also providing an extended spark path for
flashover protection. This extended portion, particularly in engines with deeply
recessed plugs, helps extend the terminal above the cylinder head so as to make it
more readily accessible. A further feature of sintered alumina is its good heat
conduction reducing the tendency for the insulator to glow with heat and so light
the mixture prematurely.
Ribs
By lengthening the surface between the high voltage terminal and the grounded
metal case of the spark plug, the physical shape of the ribs functions to improve the
electrical insulation and prevent electrical energy from leaking along the insulator
surface from the terminal to the metal case. The disrupted and longer path makes
the electricity encounter more resistance along the surface of the spark plug even in
the presence of dirt and moisture. Some spark plugs are manufactured without ribs;
improvements in the dielectric strength of the insulator make them less important.
Insulator tip
On modern (post 1930s) spark plugs, the tip of the insulator protruding into the
combustion chamber is the same sintered aluminum oxide (alumina) ceramic as the
upper portion, merely unglazed. It is designed to withstand 650 °C (1,200 °F) and
60 kV. The dimensions of the insulator and the metal conductor core determine the
heat range of the plug. Short insulators are usually “cooler” plugs, while “hotter”
plugs are made with a lengthened path to the metal body, though this also depends
on the thermally conductive metal core. Older spark plugs, particularly in aircraft,
used an insulator made of stacked layers of mica, compressed by tension in the
centre electrode. With the development of leaded petrol in the 1930s, lead deposits
on the mica became a problem and reduced the interval between needing to clean
the spark plug. Sintered alumina was developed by Siemens in Germany to
counteract this. Sintered alumina is a superior material to mica or porcelain
because it is a relatively good thermal conductor for a ceramic, it maintains good
mechanical strength and (thermal) shock resistance at higher temperatures, and this
ability to run hot allows it to be run at “self cleaning” temperatures without rapid
degradation. It also allows a simple single piece construction at low cost but high
mechanical reliability.
Seals
Because the spark plug also seals the combustion chamber or the engine when
installed, seals are required to ensure there is no leakage from the combustion
chamber. The internal seals of modern plugs are made of compressed glass/metal
powder, but old style seals were typically made by the use of a multi-layer braze.
The external seal is usually a crush washer, but some manufacturers use the
cheaper method of a taper interface and simple compression to attempt sealing.
Metal case/shell
The metal case/shell of the spark plug withstands the torque of tightening the plug,
serves to remove heat from the insulator and pass it on to the cylinder head, and
acts as the ground for the sparks passing through the central electrode to the side
electrode. Spark plug threads are cold rolled to prevent thermal cycle fatigue. It’s
important to install spark plugs with the correct “reach,” or thread length. Spark
plugs can vary in reach from 0.095 to 2.649 cm (0.0375 to 1.043 in), such for
automotive and small engine applications. Also, a marine spark plug’s shell is
double-dipped, zinc-chromate coated metal.
Central electrode
The central electrode is connected to the terminal through an internal wire and
commonly a ceramic series resistance to reduce emission of RF noise from the
sparking. Non-resistor spark plugs, commonly sold without an “R”in the plug type
part number, lack this element to reduce electro-magnetic interference with radios
and other sensitive equipment.
Similarly, a plug that was hot enough to run smoothly in town could melt
when called upon to cope with extended high speed running on motorways. The
answer to this problem, devised by the spark plug manufacturers, was to use a
different material and design for the centre electrode that would be able to carry
the heat of combustion away from the tip more effectively than a solid nickel alloy
could. Copper was the material chosen for the task and a method for manufacturing
the copper-cored centre electrode was created by Flo form At one time it was
common to remove the spark plugs, clean deposits off the ends either manually or
with specialized sandblasting equipment and file the end of the electrode to restore
the sharp edges, but this practice has become less frequent for two reasons:
cleaning with tools such as a wire brush leaves traces of metal on the
insulator which can provide a weak conduction path and thus weaken the
spark (increasing emissions)
Plugs are so cheap relative to labor cost, economics dictate replacement,
particularly with modern long life plugs.
iridium and platinum plugs that have longer life times han copper have
become more common
The development of noble metal high temperature electrodes (using metals such as
yttrium, iridium, tungsten, or palladium, as well as the relatively high value
platinum, silver or gold) allows the use of a smaller center wire, which has sharper
edges but will not melt or corrode away.
These materials are used because of their high melting points and durability,
not because of their electrical conductivity (which is irrelevant in series with the
plug resistor or wires). The smaller electrode also absorbs less heat from the spark
and initial flame energy. At one point, Firestone marketed plugs with polonium in
the tip, under the (questionable) theory that the radioactivity would ionize the air in
the gap, easing spark formation.
Spark plug gap
Spark plugs are typically designed to have a spark gap which can be adjusted by
the technician installing the spark plug, by bending the ground electrode slightly.
The same plug may be specified for several different engines, requiring a different
gap for each. Spark plugs in automobiles generally have a gap between 0.6 and 1.8
mm (0.024 and 0.071 in).
The gap may require adjustment from the out-of-the-box gap. A spark plug
gap gauge is a disc with a sloping edge, or with round wires of precise diameters,
and is used to measure the gap. Use of a feeler gauge with flat blades instead of
round wires, as is used on distributor points or valve lash, will give erroneous
results, due to the shape of spark plug electrodes.
The simplest gauges are a collection of keys of various thicknesses which
match the desired gaps and the gap is adjusted until the key fits snugly. With
current engine technology, universally incorporating solid state ignition systems
and computerized fuel injection, the gaps used are larger on average of carburetors
and breaker point distributors, to the extent that spark plug gauges from that era
cannot always measure the required gaps of current cars. Vehicles using
compressed natural gas generally require narrower gaps than vehicles using
gasoline.
Heat range
The operating temperature of a spark plug is the actual physical temperature at the
tip of the spark plug within the running engine, normally between 500 and 800 °C
(932 and 1,472 °F). This is important because it determines the efficiency of plug
self-cleaning and is determined by a number of factors, but primarily the actual
temperature within the combustion chamber. There is no direct relationship
between the actual operating temperature of the spark plug and spark voltage.
However, the level of torque currently being produced by the engine will strongly
influence spark plug operating temperature because the maximal temperature and
pressure occur when the engine is operating near peak torque output (torque and
rotational speed directly determine the power output).
OPERATION
The plug is connected to the high voltage generated by an ignition coil or magneto.
As the electrons flow from the coil, a voltage develops between the central and
side electrodes. No current can flow because the fuel and air in the gap is an
insulator, but as the voltage rises further, it begins to change the structure of the
gases between the electrodes. Once the voltage exceeds the dielectric strength of
the gases, the gases become ionized.
The ionized gas becomes a conductor and allows electrons to flow across the
gap. Spark plugs usually require voltage of 12,000–25,000 volts or more to "fire"
properly, although it can go up to 45,000 volts. They supply higher current during
the discharge process, resulting in a hotter and longer duration spark. As the
current of electrons surges across the gap, it raises the temperature of the spark
channel to 60,000 K. The intense heat in the spark channel causes the ionized gas
to expand very quickly, like a small explosion.
This is the "click" heard when observing a spark, similar to lightning and
thunder. The heat and pressure force the gases to react with each other, and at the
end of the spark event there should be a small ball of fire in the spark gap as the
gases burn on their own. The size of this fireball, or kernel, depends on the exact
composition of the mixture between the electrodes and the level of combustion
chamber turbulence at the time of the spark. A small kernel will make the engine
run as though the ignition timing was retarded and a large one as though the timing
was advanced.
Chapter-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
Chapter-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
The damage produced on the cathode surface was analyzed with scanning
electron microscopy and white light inter ferometry and was correlated with the
corresponding discharge. The craters on the surface are mainly produced by the
breakdown and arc discharge. The glow discharge delivers energy to the cathode in
a large area and produces a negligible material damage. The movement of the arc
hot spot produces further craters that are commonly overlapped. Transitions from
glow to arc, modes produce new small craters, which in some cases can be
arranged along polishing traces. This work is relevant for the development of new
electrode materials for spark plugs and electrical contacts.
CHAPTER-3
PROBLEMS IDENTIFICATION
Flash-over when the spark gap has widened due to wear of the electrodes, a higher
voltage is required. The flash-over occurs when the required voltage between the
plug electrodes is higher than the voltage flying between the terminal and metal
shell. The plug cable material hardens as time elapses, which in turn reduces the
tightness of the cover and insulator, lowering the preventive power for flash-over.
as a higher voltage is required for a turbo charged engine, flash-over is more likely
to occur. It is important to recognize that a plug cable is a consumable part which
needs to be replaced periodically. when there is no spark after washing the car or
the engine room, check whether water has entered the plug cover or not.
GOOD
Deposits accumulated on the firing end may induce abnormal combustion (pre-
ignition), causing problems that include melting of the electrodes.
Fig. good
If the edges of electrodes are worn and rounded, sparks will not easily occur,
which leads to engine starting problems and misfiring during running: maximum
power cannot be obtained from the engine
Fig Fouled
The deposits accumulated on the spark plug overheat and cause abnormal
combustion (pre-ignition) that may lead to melting of the electrodes of the spark
plug.
Fig. Deposits
Because the Firing end appearance reflects the suitability of the spark plug as well
as the condition of the engine. There are three basic criteria: good, fouled, and
overheated. The firing end appearance also depends on the spark plug tip
temperature. The boarder-line between the fouling and optimum operating regions
(450 degrees Celsius) is called the spark plug self cleaning temperature. It is at this
temperature that the deposits accumulated are burnt off.
It is widely distributed in animal and plant tissues; for humans copper is an essential
trace element and is comparatively non-toxic compared to other trace elements.
Copper is an effective control agent for many but not all forms of marine life.
SECONDARY BIOCIDES
DCOI has broad-spectrum activity against bacterial slime, barnacles, against algae,
tube worms, hydroids bryozoans, tunicates and diatoms. DCOI and its metabolites
remain in the environment for only short periods of time; in seawater they bind
strongly and essentially irreversibly to sediment and subsequently are rapidly
degraded
ABLATIVE RESINS
Ablative ("self-polishing") resins are made from polymers with labile functional
groups such as esters. Hydrolysis of these groups releases a small molecule and
creates a hydrophilic site on the polymer backbone. The small molecule released is
sometimes toxic and may contribute to antifouling performance through its
poisonous properties. When the polymer backbone accumulates a sufficient number
of hydrophilic sites it becomes water-soluble and washes from the surface of the
coating taking with it algae, diatoms, and other marine organisms and their juvenile
forms. A fresh surface is thus created, and the process is repeated. Ablative coatings
require a constant water Bow past the surface and are most effective at consistently
high water velocities. The lifetime of these coatings is determined by the initial
thickness of the coating and by the temperature of the seawater. In temperate waters
ablation is on the order of 75 mm pa year; thus a new coating applied at a thickness
of 375 mm (15 mils) would be expected to give five years of service.
The fracture mechanics at an interface - in this case, the joint between fouling
and a coating - differs from that of a solid because the interface determines the
direction of crack propagation. A joint is tough if a large amount of energy is
expended in order to propagate a crack along it. Toughness of the joint is strongly
influenced by the deformation of the adherents near the crack tip. Elastomeric
coatings, such as the silicones, deform readily and failure of the joint occurs by peel, a
mechanism which requires lower energy than failure by shear. As a crack moves along
an inner face a polymer in the crack tip is placed in tensile stress. An adhesive slips on
a silicone surface toward the crack tip, reducing the extension of the polymer, thus
reducing its tensile stress, and reducing the energy needed to propagate the crack.
Studies have shown_ that, in joints with one mobile side, the shear stress at the
interface can be as low as 5-100 kPa Thus the Bruited amount of bio adhesion on
silicone polymers is a consequence of the ability of the fouling to slip on the polymer
surface. This behavior does not occur on fluoro polymers
FLUORINATED COATINGS
SILICONE COATINGS
Coatings based on silicones have also been extensively tested for resistance to marine
fouling. The critical discovery that fouling release does not correlate with surface energy
alone, but with the square root of the product of surface energy g and elastic modulus E
.The minimum in adhesion coincides with the lowest value of elastic modulus tested,
although this does not correspond to the lowest surface energy tested, demonstrating
that elastic modulus is at least as important as surface energy in determining the
performance of silicone fouling-release coatings. Therefore the most effective route to
fouling-free performance is to encourage the release of fouling organisms from the
surface by predisposing the adhesive joint between the foulant and the coating to quick
and easy failure by peeling This is accomplished by judicious control of the thickness
and elastic modulus of the silicone coating Fouling release from silicone coatings is
best enabled when:
The silicone resin has a linear, highly flexible backbone that is substituted
with a sufficient number of groups to diminish surface energy while
preserving
backbone mobility.
The silicone resin has the lowest elastic modulus consistent with physical
toughness.
The silicone resin is stable in the marine environment, and resistant to
hydrolysis which causes loss of mass and development of surface
roughness.
The coating is applied at a thickness that favors failure by peel rather than
failure by shear at the coating-foulant joint.
The coating is very smooth.
2. SILICON
Silicon is formed in two ways, reaction bonding and sintering. Each forming
method greatly affects the end microstructure. Reaction bonded Si is made by
infiltrating compacts made of mixtures of Si and carbon with liquid silicon. The
silicon reacts with the carbon forming more Si which bonds the initial Si particles.
Sintered Si is produced from pure Si powder with non oxide sintering aids.
Conventional ceramic forming processes are used and the material is sintered in an
inert atmosphere at temperatures up to 2000ºC or higher. Both forms of silicon
carbide (Si) are highly wear resistant with good mechanical properties, including
high temperature strength and thermal shock resistance. Our engineers are always
available to best advise you on the strengths and weaknesses of each ceramic for
your particular needs.
Silicon is composed of tetrahedral of carbon and silicon atoms with strong bonds
in the crystal lattice. This produces a very hard and strong material. Silicon carbide
is not attacked by any acids or alkalis or molten salts up to 800°C. In air, SiC forms
a protective silicon oxide coating at 1200°C and is able to be used up to 1600°C.
The high thermal conductivity coupled with low thermal expansion and high
strength give this material exceptional thermal shock resistant qualities. Silicon
carbide ceramics with little or no grain boundary impurities maintain their strength
to very high temperatures, approaching 1600°C with no strength loss. Chemical
purity, resistance to chemical attack at temperature, and strength retention at high
temperatures has made this material very popular as wafer tray supports and
paddles in semiconductor furnaces.
The electrical conduction of the material has lead to its use in resistance heating
elements for electric furnaces, and as a key component in thermostats (temperature
variable resistors) and in varistors (voltage variable resistors).
SILICON PROPERTIES
Properties value
TESTING
CORROSION TEST
Cyclic corrosion testing (CCT) has evolved in recent years, largely within the
automotive industry, as a way of accelerating real world corrosion failures, under
laboratory controlled condition. As the name implies, the test comprises different
climates which are cycled automatically. So the samples under test undergo the
same sort of changing environment that would be encountered in the natural world.
The intention being to bring about the type of failure that might occur naturally,
but more quickly, i.e. accelerated. By doing this manufacturers and suppliers can
predict more accurately, the service life expectancy of their products.
KNOOP HARDNESS TEST
The Knoop hardness test is a micro hardness test - a test for mechanical hardness
used particularly for very brittle materials or thin sheets, where only a small
indentation may be made for testing purpose.
A pyramid diamond point is pressed into the polished surface of the test material
with a known (often 100g) Load, for a specified dwell time, and the resulting
indentation is measured using a microscope.
TEST READING
TEST READING
3 chromium
NO petroleum
1 zinc
2 zinc
3 zinc
NO PETROLEUM
1 Nickel
2 Nickel
3 Nickel
KNOOP TEST
MATERIALS VALUE
NICKEL
CHROMIUM
ZINC
CARBON DEPOSITION IN %
MATERIALS VALUE
MILD STEEL
NICKEL
CHROMIUM
ZINC
Chapter-4
APPLICATION
Chapter-4
APPLICATION
Chapter-5
CONCLUSION
Proper electro deposition of mild steel using zinc, Chromium and Nickel particle
was carried out. The Carbon Deposition, Knoop Hardness and Corrosion Test of
By using Nickel, Zinc and Chromium the hardness of the ground electrode
gets increased.
REFERENCE
Chapter-6
REFERENCE
Armando Ortiz, Jorge L. Romero, Ignacio Cueva, Víctor H. Jacobo, Rafael
2902.
Y. Daisho (1998) how should engines for automobiles be in the year 2010
H.T. Lin, M.P. Brady, R.K. Richards, D.M. Layton (July – August 2005),
service in natural gas engines, Wear, Volume 259, Issues 7 – 12, Pages