Avoiding Fallacy

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, students are expected to:

 Understand how to avoid deceptive language.

 Correct a wrong argument.
 Familiarize the erroneous argument.

Fallacy

 It is an argument that seems to be correct but it proves to be false. If it is committed to

deceive others, it is called “sophism.” If committed without malice, it is called
“paralogism.”

I. Verbal Fallacy

 Verbal fallacy is a mistake in the use of words but not in the structure of idea in the
mind of the speaker. In his/her mind, a speaker thinks he/she has a correct or accurate
idea, but when he/she articulates it, he/she makes a mistake.

Verbal fallacy includes the following:

1. Equivocation – This is a fallacy that happens with the use of the same
word with different meaning in the same argument.

Examples:
A star is a heavenly body.
But Katrina is a star.
Therefore, Katrina is a heavenly body.

The pen is mightier than the sword.

But, the place of pigs is a pen.
Hence, the place of my pigs is mightier than a sword.

2. Amphiboly – it is ambiguous use of word or phrase within a single and

complete sentence.

Examples:

a. He is a criminal lawyer.
- What is he? A lawyer who is criminal? Or a lawyer for criminal cases?
b. He is an English teacher.
- What is he again? Is he an Englishman teaching English (a school subject) or a
teacher (not an Englishman) who is teaching English (a school subject)?
3. Accent – it is a fallacy or a mistake in the emphasis in speech, or there is a
mistake in the placement of the punctuation.

Example:
“SLOW, MEN AT WORK” – “SLOW MEN, AT WORK.”

4. Figure of Speech – this fallacy happens when a person thinks that a

similarity of word would the same or similar meaning.

Examples: One who dances is a dancer. One who writes is a writer.

So, one who typewrites is a typewriter.
Immaterial is not material. Insoluble is not soluble.
What is inflammable is not flammable.

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 The word inflammable has the same meaning as the word flammable.

5. Composition – this is taking generally what is to be taken individually.

In other words, it is the fallacy of generalization.

Example:
Juan Dela Cruz is good;
But, Juan Dela Cruz is a PLP student;
It follows that, PLP students are good.

6. Division – it is taking individually what is to be taken generally.

Example:
Ilocanos are tight-fisted;
But, Pedro is an Ilocano;
Implies that, Pedro is tight-fisted.

II. Non-Verbal Fallacy

 Another word for non-verbal fallacy is material fallacy or fallacy of matter. The
previous unit discussed verbal or formal fallacy – the fallacy that is committed out of
the use of language.

 This time, it is not simply a mistake in the use of language, but the fallacy in the
argument itself. In short, the content of an argument is fallacious or wrong.

Non-verbal or fallacy of matter includes the following;

A. IGNORING THE ISSUE (IGNORATIO ELENCHI) – name calling or name dropping,

character assassination, attacking the person through his/her personal or physical
defects are to be avoided at all times. The phrase used is “at all times” which means that
this fallacy must be strictly avoided. Avoiding the question means that instead of
arguing or debating about the topic or question raised, the speaker out of his/her anger
or lack of evidence to prove or support his/her view, attacks a person’s character or
other physical or human imperfections.

There are other fallacious arguments under this first kind.

1. Argument Against The Person (Argumentum Ad Hominem) – it is an attack against

one’s personality, instead of the topic being debated.

Example:
How do you expect us to believe you when you come from a lineage of gamblers,
thieves, and liars?
A man with a curly hair, dark complexion and who stands not more than five feet could
not convince us of the value of education.

2. Argument to People (Argumentum Ad Populum) – this happens when the speaker, for
instance in a debate, appeals to the people’s prejudices, likes or dislikes instead of
debating the issue at hand. It appears like a sensationalized argument.

Example:
In a court session, the defense lawyer expecting that his client is going to be convicted
and there is not enough evidence to acquit, paces up and down, and asks the
members of the jury and judge to free his client. Instead of debating on behalf of
his client, he begs.

3. Argument to Sympathy (Argumentum Ad Misericondiam) – it is ignoring the issue

when somebody asks for sympathy instead of debating with facts.

Example:
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 A student to gain the sympathy of the teacher begs by saying that he/she comes from a
poor family, that he/she is self-supporting, and that the teacher should give
him/her a passing grade in the subject

4. Argument to Authority or Dignity (Argumentum Ad Verecundian) – this happens when

one justifies something by name-dropping or citing the names of people with authority
and dignity.

Example: Sharon Cuneta said that a particular product made her felt very fresh so she shifted
brands. Now why doubt the product when Ms. Cuneta has already confirmed or
endorsed its efficacy?
5. Argument to Force (Argumentum Ad Baculum) – it is an appeal to moral pressure or
threat until acceptance is assured.

Example:
China to the Philippines: stop blabbing over the Spratlys or we will send troops to
exterminate your people.
Student to teacher: sir, just give me a passing grade or someone will come and cut your
throat.

6. Argument to Ignorance (Argument Ad Ignorantiam) – it is a mistake done by ignoring

the truth or falsity of an issue and simply asserting its truth or falsity because such an
issue has never been proven false or true.

Example:
Since you cannot prove that I have killed thousands of people, therefore what I have
said is true.
The burden of proof- it becomes a fallacy if the burden of proof is given to the wrong
person. Who then is bound to prove something? The answer is he/she who
declares must prove. The burden of proof belongs to him/her who makes the
proposition.

B. NON-SEQUITUR – it is the Latin term for “it does not follow.” This fallacy arises out
of a hasty conclusion. This means that connection between the premises and conclusion
is not clear. In other word, there is no concrete cause that leads to such a conclusion.
There is no connection between the cause and result.

Example:
Because President Arroyo is friend of the bishop, she could not commit electoral fraud.
Since Mark is the handsomest of all the faculty members of the humanities department,
he should be promoted to the deanship.
His mother died because a day before, he saw a black butterfly fluttering in the garden.

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