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A MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF CYCLIC STEAM INJECTION

Abstract Résumé
The planning of steam-soak projects involves a study La planification de projets d‘imprégnation de
of the effect on profitability of varying the parameters vapeur implique l’étude de l’effet qu’on exerce sur la
that characterise a project. Because the number of rentabilité en faisant varier les paramètres caracté-
possible combinations of these technical and economic risant un projet.
variables is almost unlimited, the development of a Vu le nombre pratiquement illimité de combinaisons
computer program is imperative. des variables techniques et économiques, l’élaboration
The new program enables one to study the perfor- d’un programme d’ordinateur s’impose.
mance of large-scale steam-soak projects. The wells Le nouveau programme permet d’étudier le rende-
of a project could be classified into a limited number of ment de l’imprégnation de vapeur à grande échelle. On
groups, each group comprising the wells with almost peut classer les puits faisant l’objet de ce traitement
identical steam-soak performance characteristics. A dans un nombre restreint de groupes qui réunissent
group thus has an average performance curve that chacun les puits ayant des caractéristiques presque
represents the steam-soak performance of a single identiques quant au rendement de l’imprégnation de
(typical) well. This is simulated with the aid of the vapeur. La courbe du rendement moyen d’un groupe
mathematical model of a simplified steam-soak well représente donc le rendement de l’imprégnation de
built into the program. vapeur dans un seul puits (typique). On simule le
Most of the pertinent parameters are fixed by well- procédé à l’aide d’un modèle mathématique d’un puits
established physical conditions. A few of them are simplifié faisant l’objet du traitement d’imprégnation
determined by the behaviour of laboratory fluid-flow de vapeur, modèle que l’on intègre dans le programme.
models and/or that of actual steam-soak wells La plupart des paramètres en question sont détermi-
(mathematical-model calibration). nés par des conditions physiques bien établies.
The paper deals with the general features of the Quelques-uns d’entre eux le sont par le comportement
mathematical steam-soak well model and those of the de modèles de laboratoire servant à l’étude de l’écoule-
program for planning steam-soak projects. Examples ment de fluides etJou par celui de puits réels faisant
of mathematical-model calibration and steam-soak l’objet du traitement d’imprégnation de vapeur
project optimisation are also outlined. (calibrage de modèles mathématiques).
La communication décrit en grandes lignes le
modèle mathématique du puits à dispositif d’imprégna-
tion de vapeur, ainsi que le programme destiné à
planifier des projets d’imprégnation de vapeur. Elle
contient des explications d’exemples de calibrage de
modèles mathématiques et d’optimalisation de projets
d’imprégnation de vapeur.

1. INTRODUCTION oil production, the formation around the borehole is


heated by injecting a slug of steam through the well.
The production rate of a well that penetrates a As the heat gradually dissipates during production,
viscous oil reservoir increases considerably if, prior to high rates can only be sustained if additional slugs are
occasionally injected into the reservoir. This method
by J. OFFERINGA, of repeatedly injecting steam between periods of oil
KoninklijkelShell Exp Ioratie en production via the same well is called steam-soak.
Produktie Laboratorium, The steam-soak performance of a well depends on
Postbus 60, Rijswijk ( Z H ) , 2100, the size of the steam slug, on the cycle length (i.e. the
The Netherlands interval between the commencement of two successive
227
228 Reservoir Simulation by Mathematical Methods

steam injections) and on the total number of steam slugs remains constant, i.e. equal to the value predicted by
to be injected. Moreover, the size of the steam slug a heat-balance calculation. The heat involved in this
and the cycle length can be different for each cycle. balance is equal to the amount of heat injected at the
The number of possible combinations of the above- start of the relevant cycle plus the heat that is still
mentioned variables is almost unlimited, so that present in the reservoir at the end of the preceding
design studies of steam-soak projects are tedious. They cycle.
become even more complex if the steam-soak project During a cycle, the temperature of the disc gradu-
comprises a large number of wells with different ally decreases from a specific initial value, which is
steam-soak performance characteristics.
A computer program for the planning of large-scale ?Steam-sookcd well
steam-soak projects has therefore been developed
which incorporates a model that predicts the pro- .---R a m d o r y o f h o t disc
F l o w h e 5 of heoicd o!(
duction performance of a simplified steam-soak well Flow l i n e s of c o l d o i l
under varying conditions. Most of the parameters
defining this model are fixed, because they express the
values of well-established physical variables. A few of
them are determined from the behaviour of laboratory
fluid-flow (physical) models and/or from actual
steam-soak wells, i.e. by mathematical-model calibra-
tion.
This paper describes a mathematical model of a
steam-soak well, and gives an example of its calibra-
tion against a physical model. Some features of the
program for planning steam-soak projects and an
example of steam-soak project optimisation are also
described.

Fig. I-OilJEow around a steam-soak well.


2. DESCRIPTION OF THE MATHEMATICAL
MODEL OF A STEAM-SOAK WELL
supposedly the same for each cycle. This reduction is
Several mathematical models of the steam-soak caused by heat conduction through the cap rock and
process have been presented in the As our heat convection through the well. The conductive
steam-soak optimisation studies were mainly con- heat flow is calculated assuming that preheating of the
cerned with depletion-type reservoirs, our model cap rock during the previous cycles can be neglected.
resembles that of Boberg and Lant, who also studied Heat conduction across the bottom of the disc and
multicycle steam soaking of wells that produce by across its cylindrical surface is also neglected, as here
pressure depletion. heat conduction and heat convection supposedly
The present model is discussed below (see also balance each other.
Fig. i).
Heat distribution Production rates

Only the heat that accumulates in the pay zone In the special case where the height of the disc is
during steam injection is taken into account in the cal- equal to the thickness of the reservoir, the heat occupies
culations. This heat, expressed as a fraction of the total a cylinder around the well bore, and radial-flow
heat input at the well head, is assumed to be the equations apply. Outside the cylinder, the oil mobility
same for each cycle. This assumption implies that the is defined by the cold-oil viscosity and the originai
effects of (a) possible variations in steam-slug size with oil permeability; while inside the cylinder, the mobility
each cycle and (b) preheating of the formations depends on the hot-oil viscosity and the oil relative
during the previous cycles on the total heat losses permeability. The hot-oil viscosity is calculated with
during steam injection (from the well and from the the aid of the cylinder temperature on the one hand
reservoir) are neglected. and the oil-viscosity/temperature relationship on the
The heat in the reservoir remains evenly distributed other. The oil relative permeability has to be specified;
in a disc of constant thickness at the top of the for- it is supposed to be constant and independent of the
mation, During the cycle the radius of the disc cycle,
Reservoir Simutation by Mathematical Methods 229

However, if the height of the disc is not the same as compressible liquids, assuming a constant bottom-hole
the total thickness of the pay zone, the oil rates are pressure in the flowing well.
smaller than those mentioned above, provided the
values of the other parameters are the same in both
cases (radius and temperature of the disc, pressures, 3. AN EXAMPLE OF
etc.). It has been assumed that the rate of oil flow MATHEMATICAL-MODEL CALIBRATION
through the disc is equal to that calculated above,
multiplied by a correction factor (f). This factor is
derived with the aid of equations for the flow of oil This mathematical model of a steam-soak well is
into a well in the centre of a circular fracture, which considerably simplified and therefore needs to be
implies that here the flow resistance of the disc is calibrated. This can be done with the aid of physical
neglected. It is found that f depends only on the models, the conditions of which can be uniquely
dimensions of the disc, the well and the reservoir. defined.
Because the radius of the disc is adjusted after each The mathematical model requires the specification
steam injection, f i s only constant during a cycle. of a number of input variables which can be classified
In contrast to the above-mentioned oil flow through as follows:
the disc (hot-oil flow), the oil that reaches the well (a) the variables that express the operating con-
below the disc stays cold and therefore does not ditions, e.g. the steam-slug size and the cycle length
contribute to the convectional heat transport. The (both variables could depend on the cycle), the total
rate of cold-oil flow is also calculated with the aid of amount of steam injected, the lifting capacity of the
the radial-flow equations, using an (average) cold-oil well, the flowing bottom-hole pressure, etc. ;
zone thickness that is equal to the product of the pay
(b) variables defining the geometrical and the
thickness and (1 - f). It is thus ensured that the total
oil flow rate (i.e. the rate of hot-oil flow plus that of physical conditions at the start of steam injection,
cold-oil flow), calculated when the disc has cooled e.g. the drainage area of the well, the initial
completely, is equal to that for radial (cold-oil) flow reservoir pressure, the permeability of the reservoir,
the oil compressibility, the oil-viscosity/temperature
over the entire thickness of the pay zone.
relationship, the primary water cut, the thermal
During a cycle, the fraction of the condensed steam
that can be recovered is supposedly produced at a constants of the formations, etc. ;
rate that declines exponentially from a specified initial (c) variables that define the hot disc after steam
value. This water is added to that of primary origin injection, i.e. the initial temperature of the disc ( T ) ,
which flows along with the oil at a constant cut. The the height of the disc (expressed as a fraction of the
difference between the lifting capacity of the well and pay thickness, P), and the amount of heat that is
the total water production rate is the upper limit of supplied to the disc per unit mass of steam injected
the oil production rate. (expressed as a fraction of the specific enthalpy of
the well head, ;c)
(d) variables for which values are derived from the
steam-soak performance of the prototype; namely,
Pressures the oil relative permeability inside the hot disc (K),
the fraction of the condensed steam that can be
recovered, the fraction of the retained water of
The average reservoir pressure varies linearly with
condensation that displaces oil and the initial rate
the cumulative oil production, i.e. it is as if the oil
of condensed-steam production.
were produced under conditions of constant oil
compressibility. In this example we apply the model to a series of
When a steam slug is injected, the amount of physical-model experiments, for which the relevant
physically recoverable oil could increase due to some prototype is described in Table I. The well is soaked
of the retained condensed steam displacing oil. In with a total of 6800 tons of steam, to be divided
such cases the average reservoir pressure is adjusted evenly over 2, 3, 4 or 6 slugs with cycle lengths of
according to the previous assumption of constant oil 1230, 820, 615 and 410 days, respectively. As the
compressibility. operating, geometrical and initial physical conditions
The transient stages of pressure adjustment after are uniquely defined, the variables sub (a) and (b) are
each steam injection are neglected. The flow rates, as already known. Those under (c) can be determined by
already mentioned, are calculated with the aid of the measuring the heat distribution after steam injection,
semi-steady-state equation for the radial flow of but unfortunately our physical model did not allow
230 Reservoir Simulation by Mathematical Methods

i -5 = 0.75
150P103
brt

K =0.65

fJ= 0.65
brL

lrnt
t
150 x ~ 0 3

T=210°C

a 9
I
6x1150 tons steom
I
loo monti,s
50-

o
/ I
50
)LO = 4250 CP
3 x 2215 tons steam
I
100 months

Fig. 2-Sensitivity of calculated oil productions to variations in some parameters (all other parameters
being constant).

for this. We have therefore used existing steam-drive viscosity). In the calculations, T, ß and 5 were there-
theories to calculate the values: T = 185"C,j? = 0-65, fore kept constant, i.e. equal to the values quoted
[ = 0.75.As these are only approximations, we have above.
first studied the sensitivity of the calculated oil Figure 2 also shows that the calculated productions
productions to variations in these parameters. The are quite sensitive to variations in the oil relative
result is shown in Fig. 2, where the sensitivity appearspermeability inside the hot disc ( K ) ; this parameter
rather low, at least in the range of values investigatedbeing one of the variables classified under (d). As the
(Fig. 2 contains graphs for two values of the in situ oil
other variables in this category can be determined by
direct observation, K has been used to match the
TABLE I calculated and the experimentally-determined oil
CONDITIONS IN PHYSICAL-MODEL EXPERIMENTS* productions.
Variable Unit Value The feasibility of matching in this example is demon-
strated in Fig. 3. For the four steam-slug sizes con-
Layer thickness m 9
Radius of drainage area m 116.5 sidered, different K-values apply. These could be used
Well-bore radius cm 9 to construct a graph showing K as a function of the
Permeability to oil D 2.1 steam-slug size, and similar graphs could be made for
Oil viscosity at formation temp. CP 980
Formation temperature "C 45 the other variables classified under (d).
Initial reservoir pressure kglcmz 28 Together, these graphs define values of the class (d)
Flowing bottom-hole pressure kg/cmz 3
Porosity fraction 036 input variables, for which the computer calculations
Connate-water saturation fraction 0.08 yield realistic oil productions for intermediate values
Effective oil compressibility cmz/kg 0.0066 of steam-slug size and cycle length. Consequently, a
Max. steam injection pressure kg/cm 2 60
Average steam injection rate tonslday 45 limited number of steam-soak performances, pre-
Steam quality fraction 0.90 ferably under widely differing operating conditions,
Initial primary oil rate m3jday 4.8 would suffice for calculating the performance for a
* Prototype values. large number of different operating conditions.
Reservoir Simulation by Mathematical Methods 231
Mathematical model
- Physical model

O 50 1O0 m o n h

”:: t x103

loo i-
4x1700 tons steam

I I
50 1M months

Fig. 3-Cumulative oil production versus time ( p o = 980 cP).

4. DISCUSSION OF THE PROGRAM FOR The steam-soak performance of a well group


PLANNING OF STEAM-SOAK PROJECTS
The history of a well group is built up from equal
As already outlined, development of the mathe- time steps. When the steam soaking of a certain group
matical steam-soak well model was not a target in commences, the wells of one of the relevant subgroups
itself. The model was to be built into a program for the are taken off production to receive the first steam slug
planning of large-scale steam-soak projects, the (one time step). In the meantime, the wells of the
details of which are discussed below. remaining subgroups continue to produce any avail-
able primary oil. During the second time step, another
subgroup is steam-soaked, and the wells of the
preceding subgroup are opened for steam-soak
Division of the project into groups and subgroups production. This procedure is repeated until all
subgroups have been treated.
A steam-soak project is built up of wells that are Thereafter, additional steam injection into the group
grouped on the basis of their well characteristics and/or of wells is postponed until the total time elapsed is
the manner of steam soaking. Both the number of equal to the prescribed value of the cycle length. At
groups in a project and the number of wells in a that moment the first subgroup is taken off production
group can be chosen arbitrarily (either or both of these again to receive the second steam slug, and so on.
variables could be one). A group is divided into sub- Steam injection into the group stops when the relevant
groups, and these contain the same number of typical wells have all received the last steam slug (it could
wells. Generally, there is one incomplete subgroup continue in at least one of the other groups).
into which the remaining wells are assembled, i.e. The oil productions calculated with the aid of the
the wells that cannot form an additional com- mathematical steam-soak well model are compiled
plete subgroup. for each time step for all the subgroups, taking into
232 Reservoir Simulation by Mathematical Methods

account the time shift between steam soaking ofthe for reasons other than steam injection, e.g. because
various subgroups. The results are added to the cold- of the seasonal demand for steam-soak oil (during a
oil productions of wells not steam soaked (such wells part of a closed-in period, the wells could receive
exist only during the transient stage of production an additional steam slug).
build-up). The final result represents the group’s total (f) the number of follow-up well repairs, which may
oil production, expressed as a function of the time be carried out when the cumulative production of a
elapsed since the start of steam injection into the steam-soak well attains specified values, and/or when
group considered. the well has received a specified number of steam
slugs since the preceding repair was carried out.
The steam-soak performance of the project All these variables, calculated on an annual basis
and expressed as a function of the time elapsed since
The oil production data mentioned above are used the first capital investment in the project, define the
to calculate the steam-soak performance of the group technical performance of the steam-soak project.
of wells on an annual basis, for each group of the
project. It is assumed that the first group is steam
soaked one year after the first capital investment in Economic calculations
the project, but remaining groups could be treated
any number of years later. Moreover, this delay The above-mentioned technical performance charac-
could be different for each of these groups. Allowing teristic is used in the economic calculations of the
for these time shifts, the oil productions are compiled program. The relevant cost figures are therefore speci-
for all the well groups for each year. The sums give the fied and where applicable divided into capital and
project’s oil production performance as a function of non-capital. The economic calculations are split into
the number of years elapsed since the start of capital two parts. First, the moment when the economic limit
investment in the project. is reached is determined, i.e. the year when there is
The following variables also affect the total cost of no cash surplus for the first time (the transient period
the project and are also functions of time: of production build-up with negative cash flows is
(a) the number of initial well repairs, i.e. the repairs ignored). Secondly, cash-flow calculations are made,
carried out to adapt the wells to steam-soak. This based on the difference between the thermal and
number depends both on the rate of development primary projects. Therefore the program also calcu-
of the steam-soak groups and on the rate of steam- lates the primary production performance of all the
soak production build-up within the groups (the project wells together, as a function of time. The
latter depends on the number of wells in a subgroup cash-flow calculations stop when the prescribed
and on the length of each time step). number of annual cash flows has been made, inde-
pendent of the fact that the project could be closed-in
(b) the total number of injected steam slugs, which sooner because the economic limit is reached. The
determined the total cost of repeatedly preparing cash-flow calculations are also used to determine some
the wells for steam injection. This number depends economic yardsticks, such as the costs per produced
not only on the variables mentioned in (a), but also unit (before and after tax), the pv overall percentage
on the cycle lengths (which could be different for the profit, the earning power and the pay off time.
cycles and/or for the groups).
(c) the total amount of steam injected, which depends
both on the number of injected steam slugs [see (b)] 5. AN EXAMPLE OF STEAM-SOAK PROJECT
and on the steam distribution over the cycles and OPTIMISATION
over the well groups.
In order to demonstrate the use of the program, we
(d) the cumulative water production, which affects will now apply it to a problem that could arise in a
the water disposal costs, if any. It depends both on steam-soak project optimisation study.
the cut of the primary production and on the amount The project considered comprises 100 identical
of condensed steam recovered. wells 800ft apart, producing 1300cP oil from a
(e) the number of well days during which no lifting 140 ft thick reservoir. The compressibility of the
costs are incurred is equal to the sum of two figures, primary oil is 0.0080 cm2/kg and that of thermal oil
one of which is proportional to the total number of is expected to be 0.0120cm2/kg. Some of the other
injected steam slugs. The other represents the total parameters that define the prototype are equal to those
number of days during which the wells are closed in in Table I.
Reservoir Simulation by Mathematical Methods 233

brl/year The production rate quickly builds up to a peak


value and then declines rapidly, even before steam
injection is stopped. Nevertheless, the steam-soak
production rate exceeds the primary rate (which is
also shown in Fig. 4) for a sustained period of about
8 years. Thereafter, the steam-soak rates are lower,
and the project is closed-in when the economic limit is
reached (in this case, this was calculated to occur after
16 years). Results of the cash-flow calculations are
presented in Fig. 5 . From the graphs in this figure, it
appears that, for slug sizes between 7500 and
15000 tons, the ultimate profit is not very sensitive
to variations in the steam-slug size. Maximum profit is
obtained for the case of 10000 tons/cycle. For slug
sizes of 5000 tons and smaller, the ultimate profit is
significantly lower than with the larger steam slugs.
Finally it is emphasised that in this example the
calculated profits are considerably affected by the
1 assumption of different oil commessibilities for cold-
and thermal oil.

10 12 11 6. CONCLUSIONS
I Year
I Periodof For given values of the parameters that define the
steam injection mathematical steam-soak well model (some of which
Fig. &Annual oil production of steam-soak project are specified after calibration against a physical
(100 wells) versus time.
Currency units

It had already been decided to steam-soak each


well with a total of 30000 tons of steam. This amount
7 x106
t
.t
b
was to be divided evenly over a number of slugs and
injected at yearly intervals.
The economically most attractive steam-slug size
can be calculated from the values of economic para-
meters, which have been chosen from ranges of
possibly realistic values.
For this calculation, the program requires that the
steam-soak project be divided into groups and sub-
groups. However, in this case the project is built up
of identical wells that are all steam soaked in the same a: 2 ~ 1 5 , 0 0 0tons steam/well
manner. It is therefore pointless to distinguish more b: 3X10.000 I. rn $8

than one group. Using a time step of one month in c : 1 x 7,500 ,. u u

the calculations, this group has to be divided into d : 6 x 5,000 , ,,


12 subgroups to ensure that steam is injected con-
tinuously into the reservoir (this requirement is
satisfied if the number of subgroups is made equal to
the number of time steps in a cycle). I I I I I I
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
After calibration of the mathematical well model, as
explained previously, the cases of steam injection in
slugs: 2 x 15000 tons, 3 x 10000 tons, 4 x 7500 tons
and 6 x 5000 tons have been investigated.
The results of some of the calculations are presented
graphically. Figure 4 shows the annual steam-soak
-4-
production for the “3 x 10000 tons” project- - as a Fig. 5-Deferred (10 %) cumulative extra cash surplus
function of time. versus time.
234 Reservoir Simulation by Mathematical Methods

model and/or an actual steam-soak well) and for those reservoir pressure, which in the context of the
of the economic variables, the new program enables prototype reservoir depends only on the total
one to study: cumulative oil production of all the wells);
(a) the effect of steam-slug size, cycle length and (f) the effect of the order and timing of the steam-
total number of steam slugs; these variables, and soaking of the various well groups.
also those under the items (b)-(f) are to be specified
for each well group;
(b) the effect of varying the steam-slug size and/or REFERENCES
the cycle length with the sequence number of the
1. T. C. BOBERG and R. B. LANTZ, J. Petrol. Technol.,
cycle; 1966, 18(12), 1613-23.
(c) the effect of limiting the lifting capacity of the 2. J. C. MARTIN, J. Petrol. Technol., 1967, 19(3), 411-8.
wells and that of varying the draw-down of the 3. R. D. SEBA and G. E. PERRY, J. Petrol. Technol., 1969,
wells; 21(1), 87-94.
4. C. H. KUO, S. A. SHAIN and D. M. PHOCAS, 39th Annual
(d) the effect of closing-in the wells during one or SPE California Fall Meeting, 1968, SPE 2329.
more time periods (seasonal close-in periods) ; 5. P. J. CLOSMANN, N. W. RATLIFF and N. E. TRUITT,
(e) the effect of leaving some of the wells unsoaked, 44th AIME Fall Meeting, 1969, SPE 2516.
so that they produce part of the steam-soak reserves 6. R. G. BENTSEN and D. A. T. DONOHUE, J. Petrol.
Technol., 1969, 21(12), 1582-96.
of the other wells under cold conditions (mutual 7. H. NIKO and P. J. P. M. TROOST, 46th AIME Fall
interaction is taken into account via the average Meeting, 1970, SPE 2978.

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