CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

Present day transformers with modern lightning protection are very reliable
devices. However as long as a possibility of failure exists, protection must be provided.
The purpose of transformer failure protection is to:

1. Remove any secondary faults or overloads from the transformer before it damaged.

2. Isolate the transformer from the system to minimize fault damage after an internal fault
has occurred.

3. Isolate the transformer from the remainder of the system so that the system may
continue to function.

A high side circuit breaker in conjunction with protective relaying which usually includes
phase and ground over current relays, differential current relays and sudden pressure relays
provides a transformer protective scheme ideally suited to the purpose of transformer fault
protection.

1.1 INTERCONNECTED SYSTEM:

A distribution system with multiple available power sources that can loop
throughout the network. If one source goes down, a different source can be activated to
maintain service. The primary objective of the Transformer Protection is to detect internal
faults in the Transformer with a high degree of sensitivity and cause subsequent de-
energisation and, at the same time be immune to faults external to the transformer i.e.
through faults. Sensitive detection and de-energisation enables the fault damage and hence
necessary repairs to be limited.

However, it should be able to provide backup protection in case of through faults

on the system, as these could lead to Deterioration and accelerated aging, and/or failure of
the transformer winding insulation due to overheating and high impact forces caused in the
windings due to high fault currents. In addition to the internal faults, abnormal system
conditions such as over excitation, over voltage and loss of cooling can lead to
deterioration and accelerated aging or internal failure of the transformer. Hence protection

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against these failures should be considered in as part of the comprehensive transformer
protection scheme.

Fig 1.1: ICT SYSTEM

Transformer protection can be broadly categorized as electrical protection

implemented by sensing mainly the current through it, but also voltage and frequency and,
as mechanical protection implemented by sensing operational parameters like oil pressure/
level, gas evolved, oil & winding temperature. Like in most things in Transformer
Protection too, the extent of protective devices applied to a particular Transformer is
dictated by the economics of the protection scheme the probability of a particular type of
failure and the cost of replacing and repairing the transformer as well the possibility of the
failure leading to damage of adjacent equipment or infrastructure. Failure costs include all
the direct and indirect costs associated with it.

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 The protection scheme cost includes the cost of the protective device but is mainly
the cost of the disconnecting device i.e. the Circuit Breaker and other auxiliaries like
batteries and necessary infrastructure. Further the life cycle cost is taken into account.

There are no strict guidelines as to what protection devices should be used for a
particular transformer. However, typically Transformers below 5000 KVA are protected
using Fuses. Transformers above 10,000KVA have more sensitive internal fault detection
by using a combination of protective devices.

Why the transformer needs to be protected?

During operation, an electrical distribution network undergoes external stress such

as overvoltage. This overvoltage often damages the electrical equipment when the
amplitude exceeds the insulation level for which the equipment was sized. The transformer
has the same insulation level as the other equipment but may undergo a higher level of
stress when an overvoltage occurs. Indeed, it acts as high input impedance in pulsed
operating conditions. It therefore provides the best point of wave reflection and is
consequently one of the most exposed parts on the network.

This is why it is necessary to protect the transformer from the outside environment
and limit overvoltage to an acceptable level, i.e. by ensuring there is a margin in relation to
the device’s insulation level. The best way of doing this is to install surge arresters close to
the transformer’s connection points.

The type of protection for the transformers varies depending on the application and
the importance of the transformer. Transformers are protected primarily against faults and
overloads. The type of protection used should minimize the time of disconnection for faults
within the transformer and to reduce the risk of catastrophic failure to simplify eventual
repair. Any extended operation of the transformer under abnormal condition such as faults
or overloads compromises the life of the transformer, which means adequate protection
should be provided for quicker isolation of the transformer under such conditions.

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1.2 TRANSFORMER FAILURES:

Failures in transformers can be classified into

 Winding failures due to short circuits (turn-turn faults, phase-phase faults, phase-
ground, open winding).
 Core faults (core insulation failure, shorted laminations).
 Terminal failures (open leads, loose connections, short circuits).
 On-load tap changer failures (mechanical, electrical, short circuit, overheating).

1.2.1 Transformer failure statistics:

 Transformer failure modes.

 Lightening.
 Internal Faults.
 External Faults.
 Insulation Damage.
 Component Failures.
 Transformer failure statistics.
 How to categorize transformer failure modes.

1.2.2 Protection Methods:

 Oil temperature Alarm and Trip.

 Winding temperature Alarm and Trip.

 Buchholz relay, Oil Surge relay & Pressure relief relay.
 Surge protection.
 Fuse protection.
 Protective relaying, Overcurrent, Earth fault, Differential & Over flux.

The type of protection for the transformers varies depending on the application and
the importance of the transformer. Transformers are protected primarily against faults and
overloads. The type of protection used should minimize the time of disconnection for faults
within the transformer and to reduce the risk of catastrophic (means disastrous) failure to
simplify eventual repair. Any extended operation of the transformer under abnormal
condition such as faults or overloads compromises the life of the transformer, which means
adequate protection should be provided for quicker isolation of the transformer under such
conditions.

Three phase transformers are used throughout industry to change values of three
phase voltage and current. Since three phase power is the most common way in which
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power is produced, transmitted, a used, an understanding of how three phase transformer
connections are made is essential. In this section, it will discuss different types of three
phase transformers connections, and present examples of how values of voltage and
current for these connections are computed.

1.3 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION:

A three-phase transformer is constructed by winding three single phase

transformers on a single core. These transformers are put into an enclosure which is then
filled with dielectric oil. The dielectric oil performs several functions. Since it is a
dielectric, a nonconductor of electricity, it provides electrical insulation between the
windings and the case. It is also used to help provide cooling and to prevent the formation
of moisture, which can deteriorate the winding insulation.

1.3.1 Three-Phase Transformer Connections:

There are only 4 possible transformer combinations:

 Delta to Delta - use: industrial applications

 Delta to Wye - use: most common; commercial and industrial

 Wye to Delta - use: high voltage transmissions

 Wye to Wye - use: rare, don't use causes harmonics and balancing problems.

Three-phase transformers are connected in delta or wye configurations. A wye-delta

transformer has its primary winding connected in a wye and its secondary winding
connected in a delta. A delta-wye transformer has its primary winding connected in delta
and its secondary winding connected in a wye.

CHAPTER-2

ELECTRICAL PROTECTION

2.1 TRANSFORMER OVER-CURRENT PROTECTION:

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  Over current protection is a protection against excessive currents or current beyond
the acceptable current rating of equipment. Short circuit is a type of over current.
Magnetic circuit breakers, fuses and over current relays are commonly used to
provide over current protection.
 An over current relay is used to protect equipment against high abnormal current
(short circuit currents.

 An overload relay on the other hand is a type of over current relay which monitors
the load current and are set to determine whether the level or over current exceeds
the rating of the thermal elements.

 Over current protection is protection against short circuits. It generally operates

instantly. With standard breakers, between 500% and 1000% of full-load current is
the point where the over current protection over-rides the overload protection and
opens the circuit instantly.

 Some devices provide both overcurrent and overload protection. A thermal-

magnetic circuit breaker has both thermal (overload) and magnetic (overcurrent)
elements. Likewise, the dual element fuse has both instantaneous and inverse time
characteristics in the same fuse providing both over current and overload
protection.

 A thermal magnetic circuit breaker is an example of both types of protection in one

device.

 The same protection for overloads and over currents may be provided by electronic
circuits built into a breaker or by external relays controlling a large power breaker.
2.2 TRANSFORMER THROUGH FAULT WITHSTANDS STANDARDS:

The philosophy of transformer over current protection is to limit the fault current
below the transformer through fault with-stand capability. The fault withstand capability in
turn is based on the possibility of mechanical of the windings due to the fault current,
rather than on thermal characteristics of the transformer.

2.3 TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION:

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 The differential protection used for transformers is based on the principle of current
circulation. This type of protection is mostly used for transformers, as this responds not
only to inter turn fault but also provides protection against phase-to-phase faults.

Fig 2.1: DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

Figure shows the differential protection for transformer. In this, the power
transformer is delta- star connected. On delta side, the C.T.s are connected in star and on
the star side, the C.T.s are connected in delta as in fig. Under normal working conditions
the circulating currents caused by the primary and secondary load current in the relay
circuit will balance; but under fault conditions the balance will no longer be there and the
relay will be energized to trip the circuit breakers on the primary and secondary side.

Following are the complicated features in transformers and their remedial measures:

1. In a power transformer, the currents in primary and secondary are to be compared. As

these two currents are usually different, therefore the use of identical transformers will give
differential current and operate the relay even under no load conditions. The difference in
magnitude of currents in primary and secondary of power transformers is compensated by
different turn’s ratios of C.T.s. If T is the turn’s ratio of power transformer, then the turns

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ratio of C.T.s on LV side is made T times the turn’s ratio of the C.T.s on HV side. When
this condition is fulfilled the secondary’s of the two C.T.’s will carry same current under
normal conditions and thus no current will flow through the relay and it remains
inoperative.

2. There is usually a phase difference between the primary and secondary currents of a 3-
phase power transformer. Even if C.T.s of proper transformation ratios are used, a
differential current will flow through the relay under normal condition and cause relay
operation. The correction for phase difference is effected by appropriate connections of
C.T.s. the C.T.s on one side of the power transformer are connected in such a way that the
resultant current fed into the pilot wires are displaced in phase from the individual phase
currents in the same direction as, and by an angle equal to, the phase shift between the
power transformers primary and secondary currents. The table below shows the type of
connections to be employed for C.T.s in order to compensate for the phase difference in the
primary and secondary currents of power transformer.

3. Another factor, which has to be considered, is the inrush of magnetizing current.

When the transformer is switched to supply the magnetizing current may assume
very high values momentarily and may cause operation of the relay even though they are
transient. This can be avoided by using relays with time delay characteristics

SL.NO POWER TRANSFORMER CURRENT TRANSFORMER

CONNECTIONS CONNECTIONS

PRIMARY SECONDARY PRIMARY SECONDARY

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 1 Star with Delta Delta Star
neutral earthed
2 Delta Star Star
Delta
3 Star with neutral Delta Delta
Star earthed
4 Star Delta
Delta Star with neutral
earthed

Table-1.1: Type of connections for CT’s

These factors can result in a differential current even under balanced power in & out
conditions

a. Magnetizing inrush current: The normal magnetizing current drawn is 2 – 5% of the

rated current. However, during ‘Magnetizing inrush’ the current can be as high as 8 – 30
times the rated current for typically 10 cycles, depending upon the transformer and system
resistance.

b. Over excitation: This normally of concern in generator transformer units. But it can
also be of concern in certain transmission transformers where line capacitance is dominant
and light load conditions can lead to high voltage on the transformer. Transformers are
typically designed to operate just below the flux saturation level. Any further increase from
the maximum permissible voltage level (or Voltage / Frequency ratio), could lead to
saturation of the core, in turn leading to substantial increase in the excitation current drawn
by the transformer.

c. CT Saturation: External fault currents can lead to CT saturation. This can cause relay
operating current to flow due to distortion of the saturated CT current. Alternatively, the
harmonic current present in the saturated CT can cause a delay in the operation of the
differential relay during internal faults.

REMEDY: Proper selection of CT ratios is essential to minimize problems due to the

saturation.

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d. Different primary and secondary voltage levels that is the primary & secondary CT’s are
of different types and ratios.

e. Phase displacement in Delta-Wyes transformers.

f. Transformer voltage control taps.

g. Phase shift or voltage taps in regulating transformers.

2.4 TRANSFORMER EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION:

The earth fault protection is used to provide protection against any earth fault in the
windings of the transformer. It works on the principle that when the transformer winding is
sound the currents in all the three phases will balance and no current will spill into the
earth fault relay. The arrangement is such that the relay does not respond to any out of
balance current between windings caused by tap changing arrangement.

When the system works normal, the sum of three currents in the C.T.s is zero and
no current flows through the operating winding of the instantaneous earth fault relay and
through the neutral of the transformer. However, if fault is outside the protection area
current flows in the neutral and lines as well, but the sum of currents in the lines is
balanced by the current in neutral and hence earth relay is not operated.

Figure illustrates the use of earth fault and over current relays for both star and
delta connections of the transformer. Instantaneous type of earth relay is used. When the
winding is delta connected the earth relay is operated by the residual current from three
C.T.s connected as shown in left hand side of the fig.

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 Fig 2.2: Earth-fault Transformer Protection

If the transformer winding has an earthed neutral then the residual current from the
three line current transformers is balanced against the current of the current transformers
provided in the neutral as on the right hand side.

Now if earth fault occurs within the protected zone say in the winding itself current
will flow only in the neutral of the main transformer and thus there will be no balancing
current in the relay circuit so, the relay is energized and the circuit breaker is opened. The
trip contacts of the over current relay and earth fault relay are in parallel so, with the
energisation of either over current relay or earth fault relay the circuit breaker of the
concerned side will be tripped.

 Earth fault = no short-circuit

 Operation continues during single Earth fault.
 Earth fault must be signaled and corrected as quickly as possible.
 Earth-fault location with watt metric.
 Earth-fault direction measurement or transient earth fault relay.

2.5 TRANSFORMER OVER-LOAD PROTECTION:

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Overload protection is a protection against a running over current that would cause over
heating on the protected equipment. Hence, an overload is also type of over current.

 Overload protection typically operates on an inverse time curve where the tripping
time becomes less as the current increases. Overload relays as well as “slow blow”
fuses are commonly used to provide overload protection.

 Overload protection is protection against overheating. It operates slower. Overload

protection typically operates on an inverse time curve where the tripping becomes
less as the current increases.

2.6. TRANSFORMER OVER-VOLTAGE PROTECTION:

An overvoltage is a voltage whose value is abnormally high in relation to the

network operating voltage. It may be caused by either.

 Atmospheric conditions, in which case it is external to the network,

 Switching operations or resonance phenomena, in which case the cause is said to be
internal.

 Or the untimely opening of the circuit-breaker during transformer magnetization.

2.6.1 Atmospheric overvoltage:

This is caused by atmospheric discharge (from lightning), and may be generated:

 Either directly, when lightning strikes the transformer’s feed line conductors.

 Or indirectly, when lightning strikes the ground or metallic structures near the line,

thus generating induced current and an increase in the ground potential.

2.6.2 Switching overvoltage:

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 This is caused by maintenance work on the networks during which Circuit-
breakers or fuses interrupt inductive or capacitive loads.

2.6.3 Overvoltage caused by untimely opening on energizing:

The circuit-breaker may open just after energizing, if the protection devices have
not been set correctly, or if the user does not have sufficient knowledge of the making
currents or has forgotten to implement the “H2 check”. This untimely opening during
transformer magnetization causes significant overvoltage. The ideal solution to the
problem is the surge arrester, the surge arrester is a static device designed to limit the
amplitude of overvoltage, which may be generated at a given point on the network.

2.7. OVER-FLUX PROTECTION:

When the operating system frequency raises above the rated transformer frequency,
the working magnetic flux in the core and windings increases thereby increasing iron and
core loses and heating up the core lamination stressing the lamination insulation. The over-
flux relay operates on the V/F input, where voltage is fed from the voltage transformer and
frequency from the supply. Over-flux relay is set with sufficient time lag.

Transformer over fluxing can be a result of

• Overvoltage.

• Low system frequency.

A transformer is designed to operate at or below a maximum magnetic flux density

in the transformer core. Above this design limit the eddy currents in the core and nearby
conductive components cause overheating which within a very short time may cause
severe damage. “The magnetic flux in the core is proportional to the voltage applied to the
winding divided by the impedance of the winding”. The flux in the core increases with
either increasing voltage or decreasing frequency. During startup or shutdown of generator-
connected transformers, or following a load rejection, the transformer may experience an
excessive ratio of volts to hertz, that is, become overexcited. When a transformer core is

13
overexcited, the core is operating in a non-linear magnetic region, and creates harmonic
components in the exciting current. A significant amount of current at the 5th harmonic is
characteristic of over excitation.

2.8. GAS ANALYSIS: -

In oil immersed transformers different types of gases are generated due to different
faults or due to degradation of different materials in the transformer. The major advantage
of this gas evolution is that substantial amount of gas is evolved even for very incipient
faults or material degradations.

Thus, analysis of this gas forms a very important means for monitoring the health
of the transformer or for determining the fault in case of a fault.

The gas evolved is present dissolved in the oil. The gas is analyzed either online in
case of such systems have been installed on the transformer. Alternatively, oil samples are
periodically withdrawn and the oil is analyzed in a lab. The periodicity depends on the size
and criticality of the transformer. In case a Gas Accumulation Relay (Buchholz Relay) is
installed. These gases do get accumulated in it. Gas samples or gas relays can be used in
this case.

The implication of a few of the gases that may be observed in the oil is mentioned
below. Actual cause analysis is done by observing the ratio in which these gases are
observed and is beyond the scope of this report.

Hydrogen is generated by Corona or partial discharges. In conjunction with other

gases observed with it the source of the discharge can be determined.

Ethylene is associated with thermal degradation of oil. Trace quantities of methane

and ethane are generated at 150° C. Ethylene is generated in significant quantities at 300° C.

Carbon dioxide & Carbon monoxide are evolved on when cellulose (paper)
insulation gets over heated.

Acetylene is produced significant quantities by arcing in oil.

CHAPTER-3
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 CIRCUIT BREAKER

3.1 DEFINTION OF CIRCUIT BREAKER:

A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can

i. Make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control under normal
conditions
ii. Break a circuit automatically under fault conditions.
iii. Make a circuit either manually or by remote control under fault conditions.
Thus, a circuit breaker incorporates manual (or remote control) as well as automatic
control for switching functions. The latter control employs relays and operates only under
fault conditions. The mechanism of opening of the circuit breaker under fault conditions

Fig 3.1: Circuit Breaker

Unlike a fuse, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume
normal operation. In short, a circuit breaker is a sort of automatic switch which can
interrupt the fault currents.

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3.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE:

A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called

electrodes. Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not
open automatically until and unless the system becomes faulty. Of course, the contacts can
be opened manually or by remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs on any
part of the system, the trip coils of the circuit breaker get energized and the moving
contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit.

When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated under fault conditions, an arc is
struck between them. The current is thus able to continue until the discharge ceases. The
production of arc not only delays the current interruption process but it also generates
enormous heat which may cause damage to the system or to the circuit breaker itself.
Therefore, the main problem in a circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc within the shortest
possible time so that heat generated by it may not reach a dangerous value.

A circuit breaker can make or break a circuit either manually or automatically

under all conditions viz., no-load, full-load and short-circuit conditions. This characteristic
of the circuit breaker has made it very useful equipment for switching and protection of
various parts of the power system. In this chapter, we shall deal with the various types of
circuit breakers and their increasing applications as control devices.

The circuit breaker actually makes a physical separation in the current-carrying or

conducting element by inserting an insulating medium sufficient to prevent current from
continuing to flow. In so doing, the persistence of an arc across the gap is prevented. The
circuit is usually opened by drawing out an arc between contacts until the arc can no longer
support itself. The arc formed when the contacts of a circuit breaker move apart to interrupt
of a circuit is a conductor made up of ionized particles of the insulating materials.
Whenever voltages and currents are large other forms of insulation are used in place or air
to extinguish the arc as quickly as possible

16
 Fig-3.2: Operation of Circuit Breaker

Whenever fault occurs in the circuit breaker, relay connected to the current
transformer CT actuates and closes its contacts. Current flows from the battery in the trip
circuit As soon as the trip coil of the circuit breaker gets energized the circuit breaker
operating mechanism is actuated and it operates for the opening mechanism. The basic
circuit breaker consists of a simple switch, connected to either a bimetallic strip or an
electromagnet.

 The electricity magnetizes the electromagnet when the current jumps to unsafe
levels; the electromagnet is strong enough to pull down a metal lever connected to
the switch linkage.
 The entire linkage shifts, tilting the moving contact away from the stationary
contact to break the circuit. The electricity shuts off.

Circuit Breaker Closed Circuit Breaker Open

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Two important parts of a circuit breaker that need consideration are:

1. Arc Extinction System.

2. Relay for operation.

3.3 ARC EXTINCTION:

Whenever a circuit carrying current is interrupted by a circuit breaker an arc is

inevitably formed between the contacts which prolong the current interrupting process for
a duration ranging from 10 to 100 or more milliseconds. Since arc is produced in every
circuit breaker, therefore suitable energy dissipating device must be incorporated in the
design of circuit breaker. Unless carefully controlled, arc can lead to danger of fire or
explosion.

Fig 3.3: ARC Extinction

The arc consists of a column of ionized gas i.e. gas in which the molecules have
lost one or more of their negative electrons, leaving positive ions. The negative electrons
are attracted towards the positive contact and being light, more towards it very rapidly. The
positive ions attracted towards the negative contact. Due to electron movement, the current
flows. The ionization process is accompanied by the emission of light and heat. Also, some
portion of power is dissipated as heat. The temperature of arc may be as high as 6000 0 C.
The negative electrons are attracted towards the positive contact and being light, more
towards it very rapidly. The positive ions attracted towards the negative contact.

The factors responsible for the maintenance of arc between the contacts. These are:

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(I) P.D. between the contacts: When the contacts have a small separation, the P.D.
between them is sufficient to maintain the arc. One way to extinguish the arc is to separate
the contacts to such a distance that p.d. becomes inadequate to maintain the arc. However,
this method is impracticable in high voltage system where a separation of many metres
may be required.
(ii) Ionized particles between contacts: The ionized particles between the contacts tend
to maintain the arc, If the arc path is deionized. The arc extinction will be facilitated. This
may be achieved by cooling the arc or by bodily removing the ionized particles from the
space between the contacts.

3.4 METHODS OF ARC EXTINCTION:

Two methods commonly used are:

 High resistance interruption

 Low resistance interruption

3.4.1 High resistance interruption:

In this the arc is controlled in such a way that its resistance is caused to increase
rapidly, thereby reducing the current until it falls to a value that is insufficient to maintain
the ionization process. In this method, arc resistance is made to increase with time so that
current is reduced to a value insufficient to maintain the arc. Consequently, the current is
interrupted or the arc is extinguished. The principal disadvantage of this method is that
enormous energy is dissipated in the arc. Therefore, it is employed only in d.c. circuit
breakers and low-capacity a.c. circuit breakers.

The arc resistance may be increased by

(a) Arc lengthening

(b) Arc cooling

(c) Arc splitting

3.4.2 Low resistance interruption:

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In this the arc resistance is kept low, in order to keep the arc energy to a minimum and use
is made of a natural or artificial current zero when the arc extinguishes itself and is then
prevented from re striking. This method is employed for arc extinction in a.c. circuits only.
In this method, arc resistance is kept low until current is zero where the arc extinguishes
naturally and is prevented from re-striking inspite of the rising voltage across the contacts.
All modern high power a.c. circuit breakers employ this method for arc extinction.

The specifications of a circuit breaker are:

1. Operating voltage of the circuit:

It determines the insulating requirements.

2. Normal operating or maximum load current:

It determines requirements of the normal or load-carrying parts.

3. Maximum abnormal or fault current that must be interrupted:

It determines the mechanical requirements of the breaker itself and of its supporting
structure.

Commonly used insulations are:

l. Oil

2. Vacuum

3. Inert gas e.g. sulphur hexafluoride.

3.5 TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS: -

 SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS.

 OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS.

 AIR CIRCUIT BREAKERS.

 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS.

3.5.1 SF6 Circuit Breaker:

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 Fig-3.5: Internal Structure of Sf6 Circuit Breaker

3.5.2 Properties of SF6 gas:

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  SF6 has excellent insulating strength.
 When a free electron collides neutral gas molecule a negative ion is formed and the
electron is absorbed by neutral gas molecule
SF6 + e SF6-
 SF6 is formed by a chemical reaction between molten sulphur and fluorine.
Fluorine is obtained by the electrolysis of hydrofluoric acid (HF).
 Negative ions formed are relatively higher compared to free electrons.

3.5.3What is SF6?
 Sulphur hexafluoride.
 SF6 is a gas that is used in electrical power equipment. It is colorless, odourless,
non-flammable and chemically stable. This means that at room temperature it does
not react with any other substance.
 SF6 is a non-flammable gas that is used in electrical apparatus.
 SF6 is not poisonous.

3.5.4 Where and How Is SF6 Used?

 SF6 is used as an insulating gas in substations, as an insulating and cooling medium
in transformers and as an insulating and arc quenching medium in switchgear for
high and medium voltage applications. These are all closed systems which are
extremely safe and unlikely to leak.
 In electrical power systems, high and medium voltage switchgear is required to cut
off the power in case of a fault, in order to protect people and equipment.
 In electrical applications, SF6 is only used in sealed and safe systems which under
normal circumstances do not leak gas.SF6 is collected and recycled if a piece of
equipment or a substation needs to be opened.

3.5.6 What Is the Benefit of SF6?

 SF6 has property of fast recombination after source energizing spark is removed.
 SF6 has excellent heat transfer properties because it’s high molecular weight
together with its low gaseous viscosity enabling it to transfer heat by convection.
 SF6 has a very high dielectric withstand capability.
 SF6 effectively quenches arcs in circuit breakers.
 SF6 apparatus is compact and almost maintenance-free.
 SF6 equipment is extremely safe in operation and for users.

3.5.7 FEATURES OF SF6:

 SF6 possess high dielectric strength.
 SF6 has property of fast recombination after source energizing spark is removed.

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  SF6 has excellent heat transfer properties because it’s high molecular weight
together with its low gaseous viscosity enabling it to transfer heat by convection.

3.5.8 CONSTRUCTION OF SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER:

SF6 circuit breaker consists of

 Interrupter unit.
 Gas system.

i. INTERRUPTER UNIT: -Consists of fixed contacts with set of current carrying

fingers and an arcing probe.

 Fingers make contact with the moving contact when the breaker is in close position.
 The contacts are surrounded by interrupting nozzles and a blast shield.
 The moving contact is in the form of hollow nozzle sliding in a second set of Spring
loaded fingers.
 As soon as the moving contact is withdrawn from the fixed finger contacts an arc
is drawn between the moving nozzle and the arcing probe.
 As the contacts move further apart, the arc is extended and attenuated and finally
extinguished by the gas flow from high pressure to low pressure.

Fig-3.5.1: SF6 Interrupter unit &Gas system.

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ii. GAS SYSTEM: -

 Perfect sealing to prevent leakage of gas as it is maintained at high pressure.

 Low and high pressure system are fitted with low pressure alarms which gives
warning the moment gas pressure drops below certain value.
 If danger limit is reached the safety devices immobilize the breaker.

3.5.8 ADVANTAGES OF SF6 C.B.:

 Current chopping is minimized at low pressure and low velocity.

 Eliminates moisture problem.
 Gives noiseless operation.
 No carbon particle is formed during arcing.
 An atmospheric condition does not affect.
 Circuit breaker performance.

Type Medium Range

Low voltage Up to
1. Air break C.B. Air at atmospheric pressure
l000 V
Tank type oil circuit
2. Dielectric oil Up to 33 kV
breaker

Minimum oil circuit 36 kV, 1500 MVA

3. Dielectric oil
breaker 132 kV, 3000 MVA

Compressed air (pressure 20 to 30 132 kV, 220 kV

4. Air blast C.B.
atmospheres) 400 kV, 760 kV

132 k V, 220 kV
5. SF6 C.B. SF6 gas
400 kV, 760 kV.

6. Vacuum C.B. Vacuum 11 kV. 33 kV

High voltage direct current

7. Vacuum or SF6 ± 500 kV DC.
C.B.

Table3.1: Classification of Circuit-Breakers

24
3.6 AUXILIARY SWITCH:

3.6.1Auxiliary Switches for Circuit Breakers:

A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect

an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is
to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue
electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit
breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit
breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household
appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire
city.

Fig 3.6: Auxiliary Switch

3.6.2Auxiliary Switches for High Tension Switchgear:

High voltage switchgear is an switchgear used to connect or disconnect a part of a

high-voltage power system. This switchgear are essential elements for the protection and
safe operation, without interruption, of a high voltage power system. This type of
equipment is important because it is directly linked to the quality of the electricity supply.
The International Electro Technical Commission defines high voltage as a voltage above
1,000 volts for alternating current and above 1,500 V for direct current. High voltage
switchgear was invented at the end of the 19th century for operating motors and others

25
electric machines. The technology has been improved over time and can be used with
voltages up to 1,100 kV

Safety Notes: -

 The auxiliary switches are not allowed to be used outside the specified field of
application, especially in aircraft or in any other airborne means of transport.
 Assembly must be carried out by trained personnel. Any legal regulations or
regulations issued by authorities must be observed during assembly.
 The device may only be opened at the manufacturer‘s site. It does not contain any
parts that can be replaced or repaired by the user.
 The cable must not be removed from the device.
 The device contains electrical and electronic components and is not allowed to be
disposed of as household refuse. All locally valid regulations and requirements
must be observed.

Application Auxiliary switches are used to signal positions or to execute

Switching functions in any angular position.

Mode of A form-fit engagement is created between a driver disc and the

operation clamp, causing the position to be directly transferred to the trip
cams of the micro switches. The switching points can be freely
selected within the specified range of rotation by means of a dial.
The current switch position can be read at any time.

Mounting The auxiliary switches are attached directly to the clamp of the
damper actuator. The guiding grooves between the housing and the
switch ensure a tightly sealing fit.

General Information: These devices are used extensively in the power industry by
equipment

3.6.3 Other Applications of Auxiliary Switches:

26
 Auxiliary switch for High tension
Disconnecting Switch for High tension switchgear
switchgear

Auxiliary switch for Electrical interlocking Disconnecting Switch for Electrical interlocking

Auxiliary switch for protection circuits Disconnecting Switch f or protection circuits

Auxiliary switch for remote indications Disconnecting Switch for remote indications

Auxiliary switch for Isolators Disconnecting Switch for Isolators

Auxiliary switch for Circuit Breakers Disconnecting Switch for Circuit Breakers

Auxiliary switch for Vacuum Circuit

Disconnecting Switch for Vacuum Circuit Breakers
Breakers

Table3.6: Classification of Auxiliary switches

3.7 EARTH SWITCH:

Earthing Switch is necessary to earth the conducting parts before maintenance and
also to provide deliberate short-current while testing. There can be three types of Earthing
switches in metal-clad. Switches manually operated automatic high speed Earthing Switch,
protective Earthing Switch for earthing the installation.

There are several versions of Earthing Switches for following applications

a) Maintenance Earthing Switches.

b) High Speed Earthing Switches.

Maintenance Earthing Switches:

27
 These are single pole or three pole units; manually operating mechanism with a
provision of filling motor mechanism.

High Speed Earthing Switches:

These are operated by spring energy. Spring is charged by motor-mechanism

Earthing Switch consists of

1- Moving Contact.

2- Operating lever.

3- Position indicator.

The earth Switch is mounted direct on the enclosure Fig. (1) Earthing Switch has to
satisfy various requirements. For Earthing isolated sections of Switchgear for protection of
personal during maintenance and over-hauls or erection, the maintenance Earthing
Switches are employed. For earthing higher capacitances (cables, overhead line etc.) high
speed Earthing Switch are employed. Depending on the substation scheme, the Bus-Bars
may be earthed either by maintenance or high-speed Earthing Switches.

Special high speed Earthing Switches with interrupting capability are also
available. These are suitable for interrupting capacitive and inductive currents from parallel
overhead lines. In certain cases, Earthing Switches are fitted to the enclosure with
interposed insulation. This enables various tests to be performed on the Switchgear or item
of equipment, such as testing the current Transformer of measuring the operating time of
breakers, without having to open the enclosure.

During normal operation the insulation is bypassed by a short-circuit-proof link. To

check whether a point to be earthed really is dead, the Earthing Switch can be equipped
with a capacitive tap for connecting a voltage test unit. This additional safety device
reduces the risk of closing onto a live conductor.

28
3.7. 1 Use of Earth Switches:

The use of earth switches is to send any trapped charge in the line into ground after
the line is switched off. Mainly what happens, when the line is switched off, some charges
remain trapped in line due to their own capacity and also due to influence of side by X-
line. This trapped charge is dangerous if someone goes for maintenance of that very line.
So it is very much required to neutralize that much charge and here comes the use of earth
switch

Isolators with earth switch (ES):

The instrument current transformer (CT) steps down the current of a circuit to a
lower value and is used in the same types of equipment as a potential transformer. This is
done by constructing the secondary coil consisting of many turns of wire, around the
primary coil, which contains only a few turns of wire.

In this manner, measurements of high values of current can be obtained. A current

transformer should always be short-circuited when not connected to an external load.
Because the magnetic circuit of a current transformer is designed for low magnetizing
current. When under load, this large increase in magnetizing current will build up a large
flux in the magnetic circuit and cause the transformer to act as a step-up transformer,
inducing an excessively high voltage in the secondary when under no load.

The main use of using the earth switch (E/S) is to ground the extra voltage which
may be dangerous for any of the instrument in the substation..

29
 CHAPTER-4

ISOLATOR

4.1 ISOLATOR:

High-voltage isolation switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation

of apparatus such as circuit breakers and transformers, and transmission lines, for
maintenance. It has the additional ability to earth the isolated circuit thereby providing
additional safety. Such an arrangement would apply to circuits which inter-connect power
distribution systems where both end of the circuit need to be isolated.

30
 Fig4-1: Out-door isolator Switch

The line isolators are used to isolate the high voltage from flow through the line
into the bus. This isolator prevents the instruments to get damaged. It also allows the only
needed voltage and rest is earthed by itself. The use of this isolator is to protect the
transformer and the other instrument in the line. The isolator isolates the extra voltage to
the ground and thus any extra voltage cannot enter the line. Thus an isolator is used after
the bus also for protection.

The major difference between an isolator and a circuit breaker is that an isolator is
an off-load device intended to be opened only after current has been interrupted by some
other control device. Safety regulations of the utility must prevent any attempt to open the
disconnect or while it supplies a circuit.

31
 Fig-4.2: Line Isolator

The line isolators are used to isolate the high voltage from flow through the line into the
bus. This isolator prevents the instruments to get damaged. It also allows the only needed
voltage and rest is earthed by itself.

4.2 APPLICATIONS:

In electronics testing and servicing isolation transformer is a 1:1 (under load) power
transformer used for safety. Without it, exposed live metal in a device under test is at a
hazardous voltage relative to grounded objects such as a heating radiator or oscilloscope
ground lead (a particular hazard with some old vacuum-tube equipment with live chassis).
With the transformer, as there is no conductive connection between transformer secondary

32
and earth, there is no danger in touching a live part of the circuit while another part of the
body is earthed.

Electrical isolation is considered to be particularly important on medical

equipment, and special standards apply. Often the system must additionally be designed so
that fault conditions do not interrupt power, but generate a warning. Isolation transformers
are also used for the power supply of devices not at ground potential. An example is the
Austin transformer for the power supply of air-traffic obstacle warning lamps on radio
antenna masts. Without the isolation transformer, the lighting circuits on the mast would
conduct radio-frequency energy to ground through the power supply.

Metal boats are subject to corrosion if they use earthed power from shore when
moored, due to galvanic currents that flow through the water between shore earth and the
hull. This can be avoided by using an isolation transformer with the primary and case
connected to shore earth, and the secondary "floating”. A metal safety screen between
primary and secondary is connected to shore earth; in the event of a fault current in the
primary (due, e.g., to insulation breakdown) it will cause the fault current to return and trip
a shore-based circuit breaker rather than making the hull live.

4.3 SURGE ARRESTERS:

33
 Types of Surge Arrestor

A Surge Arrestor is installed between communication equipment and coaxial cable

connector or between two communication equipments to protect communication
equipment from damage caused by transient state voltage formed by lightning induction. It
adopts quarter-wave technology, is designed according to VSW (Voltage Standing Wave)
theory and frequency spectrum of lightning wave. It has features of quick reaction, big
current passing capacity, wide frequency band, low VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio),
low insertion loss, easy installation and free maintenance. It can be used to meet protection
requirements of various communication equipments and lightning sensitivity.

In telecommunications, standing wave ratio (SWR) is the ratio of the amplitude of a

partial standing wave at antinodes (maximum) to the amplitude at an adjacent node
(minimum), in an electrical transmission line. The SWR is usually defined as a voltage
ratio called the VSWR, for voltage standing wave ratio. For example, the VSWR value
1.2:1 denotes maximum standing wave amplitude that is 1.2 times greater than the
minimum standing wave value. It is also possible to define the SWR in terms of current,
resulting in the ISWR, which has the same numerical value. The power standing wave ratio
(PSWR) is defined as the square of the VSWR.

34
 Fig-4.3: Surge Arrestor

SWR is used as an efficiency measure for transmission lines, electrical cables that
conduct radio frequency signals, used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters
and receivers with their antennas, and distributing cable television signals. A problem with
transmission lines is that impedance mismatches in the cable tend to reflect the radio waves
back toward the source end of the cable, preventing all the power from reaching the
destination end. SWR measures the relative size of these reflections. An ideal transmission
line would have an SWR of 1:1, with all the power reaching the destination and no
reflected power. An infinite SWR represents complete reflection, with all the power
reflected back down the cable. The SWR of a transmission line is measured with an
instrument called an SWR meter, and checking the SWR is a standard part of installing and
maintaining transmission lines.

The surge arrester is a static device designed to limit the amplitude of overvoltage,
which may be generated at a given point on the network. The overvoltage is limited by
running off the current into the earth via the surge arrester.

35
 Fig-4.4: Surge Diverter.

The surge arrester is permanently connected to the network, close to the

transformer’s terminals. When an overvoltage wave is propagated over the network and
becomes greater than the surge arrester’s limitation voltage, the resistance of the surge
arrester becomes temporarily very weak, allowing the current to be run off to earth and
hence limiting the voltage at the transformer’s terminals. It spontaneously recovers its
insulation quality once the voltage has reached its normal value again. This solution offers
a genuine advantage in terms of network operation since it does not involve interrupting
the supply.

It consists of a spark gap in series with a non-linear resistor. One end of the
diverter is connected to the terminal of the equipment to be protected and the other end is
effectively grounded. The length of the gap is so set that normal voltage is not enough to
cause an arc but a dangerously high voltage will break down the air insulation and form an
arc. The property of the non-linear resistance is that its resistance increases as the voltage

36
(or current) increases and vice-versa. This is clear from the volt/amp characteristic of the
resistor shown in Fig (ii).

The action of the lightning arrester or surge diverter is as under:

(i) Under normal operation, the lightning arrester is off the line i.e. it
conducts no current to earth or the gap is non-conducting.
(ii) On the occurrence of over voltage, the air insulation across the gap breaks
down and an arc is formed providing a low resistance path for the surge to
the ground. In this way, the excess charge on the line due to the surge is
harmlessly conducted through the arrester to the ground instead of being
sent back over the line.

(iii) It is worthwhile to mention the function of non-linear resistor in the

operation of arrester. As the gap sparks over due to over voltage, the arc
would be a short circuit on the power system and may cause power-follow
current in the arrester. Since the characteristic of the resistor is to offer
low resistance to high voltage (or current), it gives the effect of short-
circuit. After the surge is over, the resistor offers high resistance to make
the gap non-conducting.

4.3.1 Types of Lightning Arresters:

There are several types of lightning arresters in general use. They differ only in
constructional details but operate on the same principle viz, providing low resistance path
for the surges to the round. Following are the different types of lightning relays:

1. Rod arrester

2. Horn gap arrester

3. Multi-gap arrester

4. Expulsion type lightning arrester

5. Valve type lightning arrester.

37
4.3.2 Necessity: -

The necessity of providing surge arrester protection on low-voltage circuits is

fundamentally the same as for primary system protection. While secondary lines usually
are shorter than primary lines, they still are subject to surges which can cause stresses
beyond the insulation withstand strength of connected equipment.

An arrester rating represents the maximum line-to-ground voltage to which the

arrester should be subjected. Since surge arresters are inherently sensitive to over voltages,
they should never be subjected to 60 Hz voltages above their rated voltage, even during
momentary abnormal conditions. If such a condition is likely, a special system study may
be necessary, and a higher rated arrester may be required.

4.3.3 Choice of surge arrester and its purpose: -

To justify the use of a surge arrester, it is necessary to assess the risk of lightning
striking using various parameters such as:

- The lightning impact level Nk, which is the number of days a Year thunder has been
detected in a given place,

- The type of network,

- The topology of the place.

To define a surge arrester, it is necessary to know the networks characteristics, and

notably the neutral point connection conditioning the choice of constant operating voltage.
The transformer manufacturer is usually unaware of the network parameters; furthermore,
probability calculations differ according to the type of network and the country.

The main electrical sizing criteria are:

• The maximum constant voltage, dependent on the rated voltage Un and neutral point
connection,

• The rated current (e.g. 10 kA),

• The residual voltage at in (8/20 μs wave)

38
• Creep age distance.

4.4 USE OF SURGE ARRESTOR:

Electrical appliance used to protect electronic equipment against lightning

overvoltage transients. It is usually connected to wires (power phase line, signal line, zero
line) and ground between being protective devices in parallel, when the lightning over-
voltage the value of the required actions voltage, arrestor immediate to limit over-voltage
amplitude lead to protection equipment and systems, enabling the system to work properly.

Low-voltage surge arrestor: - Apply in Low-voltage distribution system, exchange of

electrical appliances protector, low-voltage distribution transformer windings

Protection of rotating machine using magnetic blow valve arrester: - Used to protect
the AC generator and motor insulation

Line Magnetic blow valve arrester: - Used to protect 330KV and above communication
system circuit equipment insulation.

DC or blowing valve-type arresters: - Use to protect the DC system’s insulation of

electrical equipment.

Neutral protection arrester: - Apply in motor or the transformer’s neutral protection

High-frequency feeder arrester: - Used to protect the microwave, mobile base stations
satellite receiver, etc.

Signal Arrester Apply in MODEM, DDN line, fax, phone, process control signal circuit
etc.

Network arrester: - Apply in servers, workstations, interfaces etc.

39
 CHAPTER-5

PROTECTIVE RELAYS

5.1 DEFINITION PROTECTIVE RELAY:

It is a complex electromechanical apparatus, often with more than one coil,

designed to calculate operating conditions on an electrical circuit and trip circuit breakers
when a fault is detected. Unlike switching type relays with fixed and usually ill-defined
operating voltage thresholds and operating times, protective relays have well-established,
selectable, time/current (or other operating parameter) curves. Such relays may be
elaborate, using arrays of induction disks, shaded-pole magnets, operating and restraint
coils, solenoid-type operators, telephone-relay contacts, and phase-shifting networks.

Protection relays respond to such conditions as over-current, over-voltage, reverse

power flow, over- and under- frequency. Distance relays trip for faults up to a certain
distance away from a substation but not beyond that point. An important transmission line
or generator unit will have cubicles dedicated to protection, with many individual
electromechanical devices

Electromechanical protective relays at a hydroelectric generating plant. Design and

theory of these protective devices is an important part of the education of an electrical
engineer who specializes in power systems. Today these devices are nearly entirely
replaced with microprocessor-based digital protective relays (numerical relays) that
emulate their electromechanical ancestors with great precision and convenience in
application. By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also save capital
cost and maintenance cost over electromechanical relays. However, due to their very long
life span, tens of thousands of these "silent sentinels" are still protecting transmission lines
and electrical apparatus all over the world.” Special type of relay is one which monitors the
current, voltage, frequency, or any other type of electric power measurement either from a
generating source or to a load for the purpose of triggering a circuit breaker to open in the

40
event of an abnormal condition. These relays are referred to in the electrical power industry
as protective relays”.

The circuit breakers which are used to switch large quantities of electric power on
and off are actually electromechanical relays, themselves. Unlike the circuit breakers found
in residential and commercial use which determine when to trip (open) by means of a
bimetallic strip inside that bends when it gets too hot from overcurrent, large industrial
circuit breakers must be "told" by an external device when to open. Such breakers have
two electromagnetic coils inside: one to close the breaker contacts and one to open them.
The "trip" coil can be energized by one or more protective relays, as well as by hand
switches, connected to switch 125 Volt DC power. DC power is used because it allows for
a battery bank to supply close/trip power to the breaker control circuits in the event of a
complete (AC) power failure.

Protective relays can monitor large AC currents by means of current transformers

(CT's), which encircle the current-carrying conductors exiting a large circuit breaker,
transformer, generator, or other device. Current transformers step down the monitored
current to a secondary (output) range of 0 to 5 amps AC to power the protective relay. The
current relay uses this 0-5 amp signal to power its internal mechanism, closing a contact to
switch 125 Volt DC power to the breaker's trip coil if the monitored current becomes
excessive.

Likewise, (protective) voltage relays can monitor high AC voltages by means of

voltage, or potential, transformers (PT's) which step down the monitored voltage to a
secondary range of 0 to 120 Volts AC, typically. Like (protective) current relays, this
voltage signal powers the internal mechanism of the relay, closing a contact to switch 125
Volt DC power to the breaker's trip coil is the monitored voltage becomes excessive. There
are many types of protective relays, some with highly specialized functions. Not all
monitor voltage or current, either.

They all, however, share the common feature of outputting a contact closure signal
which can be used to switch power to a breaker trip coil, close coil, or operator alarm
panel. Most protective relay functions have been categorized into an ANSI standard
number code. Here are a few examples from that code list:

41
5.2 OPERATION PRINCIPLES:

A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the
circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.

Electromechanical protective relays operate by either magnetic attraction, or

magnetic induction. "Armature"-type relays have a pivoted lever supported on a hinge or
knife-edge pivot, which carries a moving contact. These relays may work on either
alternating or direct current, but for alternating current, a shading coil on the pole is used to
maintain contact force throughout the alternating current cycle. Because the air gap
between the fixed coil and the moving armature becomes much smaller when the relay has
operated, the current required to maintain the relay closed is much smaller than the current
to first operate it. The "returning ratio" or "differential" is the measure of how much the
current must be reduced to reset the relay.

Protective relays can also be classified by the type of measurement they make. A
protective relay may respond to the magnitude of a quantity such as voltage or current.
Induction types of relay can respond to the product of two quantities in two field coils,
which could for example represent the power in a circuit. Although an electromechanical
relay calculating the ratio of two quantities is not practical, the same effect can be obtained
by a balance between two operating coils, which can be arranged to effectively give the
same result.

The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by constantly
measuring the electrical quantities which are different under normal and fault conditions.
The electrical quantities which may change under fault conditions are voltage, current,
frequency and phase angle. Through the changes in one or more of these quantities, the
faults signal their presence, type and location to the protective relays. Having detected the
fault, the relay operates to close the trip circuit of the breaker. This results in the opening of
the breaker and disconnection of the faulty circuit.

42
 Most of the relays used in the power system operate by virtue of the current and/or
voltage supplied by current and voltage transformers connected in various combinations to
the system element that is to be protected. Through the individual or relative changes in
these two quantities, faults signal their presence, type and location to the protective relays.
Having detected the fault, the relay operates the trip circuit which results in the opening of
the circuit breaker and hence in the disconnection of the faulty circuit. Most of the relays in
service on electric power system today are of electro-mechanical type.
They work on the following two main operating principles

5.3 Types of Relays:

i. Over-current Relays.

ii. Over-voltage Relays.

iii. Differential Relays.

iv. Earth-Fault Relays.

v. Buchholz Relays.

vi. Oil Surge Relays.

vii. Pressure Relay Valve.

5.3.1 Overcurrent Relays:

Figure illustrates the use of earth fault and over current relays for both star and
delta connections of the transformer. Instantaneous type of earth relay is used. When the
winding is delta connected the earth relay is operated by the residual current from three
C.T.s connected as shown in left hand side of the fig. If the transformer winding has an
earthed neutral then the residual current from the three line current transformers is
balanced against the current of the current transformers provided in the neutral.

When the system works normal, the sum of three currents in the C.T.s is zero and
no current flows through the operating winding of the instantaneous earth fault relay and
through the neutral of the transformer.

43
 Fig-5.1: Overcurrent Relay Protection

However, if fault is outside the protection area current flows in the neutral
and lines as well, but the sum of currents in the lines is balanced by the current in neutral
and hence earth relay is not operated. Now if earth fault occurs within the protected zone
say in the winding itself current will flow only in the neutral of the main transformer and
thus there will be no balancing current in the relay circuit so, the relay is energized and the
circuit breaker is opened. The trip contacts of the over current relay and earth fault relay
are in parallel so, with the energisation of either over current relay or earth fault relay the
circuit breaker of the concerned side will be tripped.

The protective relaying which responds to a rise in current flowing through the
protected element over a pre-determined value is called 'overcurrent protection' and the
relays used for this purpose are known as overcurrent relays. Earth fault protection can be
provided with normal overcurrent relays, if the minimum earth fault current is sufficient in
magnitude. The design of a comprehensive protection scheme in a power system requires
the detailed study of time-current characteristics of the various relays used in the scheme.
Thus it is necessary to obtain the time current characteristics of these relays.

The over current protection is needed to protect the transformer from sustained
overloads and short circuits. Induction type over current relays are used which in addition
to providing overload protection acts as back up relays for protection of transformer

44
winding fault. Fig 10 shows the combined over current and earth fault protection. The earth
fault protection is used to provide protection against any earth fault in the windings of the
transformer. It works on the principle that when the transformer winding is sound the
currents in all the three phases will balance and no current will spill into the earth fault
relay. The arrangement is such that the relay does not respond to any out of balance current
between windings caused by tap changing arrangement

The overcurrent relay works on the induction principle. The moving system
consists of an aluminum disc fixed on a vertical shaft and rotating on two jeweled bearings
between the poles of an electromagnet and a damping magnet. The winding of the
electromagnet is provided with seven taps (generally0, which are brought on the front
panel, and the required tap is selected by a push-in -type plug. The pick-up current setting
can thus be varied by the use of such plug multiplier setting. The pick-up current values of
earth fault relays are normally quite low. The operating time of all overcurrent relays tends
to become asymptotic to a definite minimum value with increase in the value of current.
This is an inherent property of he electromagnetic relays due to saturation of the magnetic
circuit. By varying the point of saturation, different characteristics can be obtained.

5.3.2 Instantaneous Over Current Relay:-

Instantaneous over current relays which operation criteria is only current magnitude
(without time delay). This type is applied to the outgoing feeders. The connection diagram
of instantaneous over current relay.

Tripping Characteristics of Instantaneous Over Current Relay

45
 5.3.3 Differential protection relays:

The differential protection used for transformers is based on the principle of current
circulation. The differential protection relays are used for fast and selective fault clearing
of short-circuits in transformers of all voltage levels and also in rotating electric machines
like motors and generators, for short lines and bus bars. The specific application can be
chosen by parameterization. In this way an optimal adaptation of the relay to the protected
object can be achieved. In addition to the differential function, a backup overcurrent
protection for 1 winding/ star point is integrated in the relay. Optionally, a low or high-
impedance restricted earth-fault protection, a negative-sequence protection and a breaker
failure protection can be used.

With external temperature monitoring boxes a maximum of 12 temperatures can be

measured and monitored in the relay. Therefore, complete thermal monitoring of a
transformer is possible, e.g. hot-spot calculation of the oil temperature. The protection
relay can be parameterized for use with three-phase and single-phase transformers.

S.no Relay Operation

Differential Responds to vector difference between two or more similar

1.
relay electrical quantities.

Operates when the impedance between relay point and fault

2. Impedance relay
point is below a specified value.

Over current Responds to increase in current. The relay operates when

3.
relay the current exceeds a present level
Instantaneous A quick operating relay (less than 0.2-second operating
4.
relay times).

A relay without moving parts. In this the measurement is

5. Static relay
performed by a stationary circuit.

Table-5.1: Relay with their operations

The integrated programmable logic (CFC) allows the users to implement their own
functions, e.g. for the automation of switchgear (interlocking).

46
 User-defined messages can be generated as well. The flexible communication
interfaces are open for modem communication architectures with control system.

5.3.4 Buchholz Relay:

A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer
if gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil. This relay is actually used as a safety
device. They are used for knowing the amount of gas present in large oil-filled
transformers. They are designed in such a way that they produce a warning if it senses
either the slow production of gas or fast production of gas in the transformer oil.

This relay is actually used as a safety device. They are used for knowing the
amount of gas present in large oil-filled transformers. They are designed in such a way that
they produce a warning if it senses either the slow production of gas or fast production of
gas in the transformer oil.

5.3.5 Construction:

The constructional details of buchholz relay. It consists of a domed vessel placed in

the pipe between the conservator and main tank of the transformer. The device has two
elements. The upper element consists of a mercury type switch attached to a float. The
lower element contains a mercury switch mounted on a hinged type flap located on the
direct path of flow of oil from the transformer to the conservator.

47
 Fig-5.3: Buchholz Relay

The upper element closes an alarm circuit during slow developing faults whereas the lower
element is arranged to trip the circuit breaker in case of severe internal faults.

48
5.3.6 OPERATION:

The operation of buchholz relay is as follows:

1. In case of slow developing faults within the transformer, the heat due to the fault causes
decomposition of some transformer oil in the main tank. The products of
decomposition mainly contain 70 % of hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas being light
tries to go into the conservator and in the process gets trapped in the upper part of the
relay chamber. When a predetermined amount of gas gets accumulated, it exerts
sufficient pressure on the float to cause it to tilt and close the contacts of mercury
switch attached to it. This completes the alarm circuit to sound an alarm.
2. If serious fault occur in the transformer, an enormous amount of gas is generated in the
main tank. The oil in the main tank rushes towards the conservator via the buchholz
relay and in doing so it tilts the flap to close the contacts of mercury switch. This
completes the trip circuit to open the circuit breaker controlling the transformer.

ADVANTAGES:
1. It is the simplest form of transformer protection.

2. It detects the slow developing faults at a stage much earlier than other forms of
protection.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. It can only be used with oil immersed transformers equipped with conservators.

2. The device can detect only faults below oil leveling the transformer. Therefore
separate protection is needed for connecting cables.

5.3.5 Earth-fault relay:

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 In the case of a grounded neutral system the vector sum of the current flowing in
the three different phases will flow through the neutral conductor. Under healthy condition
the resultant current flowing through the secondary grounded neutral current transformer
will be zero. In such a three phase system if one of the three phases gets grounded or
earthed then unbalancing of current occurs, the vector sum of all the three phases will have
certain value.

If this value exceeds the set value indicated on the relay, then the relay actuates and
trips the main circuit. Further the protection can be achieved using three individual CT”s
for the three phases, the secondary terminals of the CT”s have to be connected in parallel
to the sensing circuit of the Earth Fault Relay. In case of unbalancing of current or earth
fault the vector sum of these currents in the three phases will have certain value.

If the fault level exceeds the set value on the relay trips the main breaker.
The distance impedance relays are normally used for phase- to-phase faults as for such
faults the loop impedance between the phases is obtained which remains constant, but in
case of earth fault the loop impedance consists of impedance of one line and the impedance
of the earth fault which is a variable factor.

Practically it has been estimated that for earth fault loop impedance is
approximately 1.5 times the impedance of earth phase (phase and neutral), however for a
multiple earth system this factor may be taken 1.25. Further the protection can be achieved
using three individual CT”s for the three phases, the secondary terminals of the CT”s have
to be connected in parallel to the sensing circuit of the Earth Fault Relay.

In case of unbalancing of current or earth fault the vector sum of these currents in
the three phases will have certain value. If the fault level exceeds the set value on the relay
the relay trips the main breaker. Hence for earth faults special connections can be made, so
the impedance relay may be used for both phase and earth fault. From this it appears that
the system will require two – impedance relays with voltage restraint elements energized
one for phase faults and the other for earth faults.

However with the use of earth and phase fault setting resistances, and transfer relay,
only one impedance relay set can he used as illustrated. Normally the relay is connected for

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phase-to-phase fault, when an earth fault occurs, the earth fault resistance acts into the
circuit through transfer relay.

Fig-5.4: Earth-fault relay

5.4 Relay Applications:

Relays are used to control the flow of large currents using a small current. In the
past, they were widely used in telephone exchanges to switch calls, but have been largely
replaced by digital equipment. They are used to switch motors on and off, and to protect
them from overheating. Thermostats use an overload relay to shut off the current when the
temperature rises above the required setting.

CHAPTER-6

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 WAVE TRAP

6.1 WAVE TRAP:

A wave trap is an instrument using for tripping of the wave. The function of this
trap is that it traps the unwanted waves. Its function is of trapping wave. Its shape is like a
drum. It is connected to the main incoming feeder so that it can trap the waves which may
be dangerous to the instruments here in the substation. A wave trap is a parallel resonant
circuit installed on the power line at the local substation.

It is tuned to resonate at a specific frequency or frequencies. These frequencies are

equivalent to the frequencies of the local power line carrier transceiver.

Fig-6.1: Wave Trap

6.2 WORKING OF WAVE TRAP IN SUB-STATION:

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 Line trap also is known as Wave trap. The signals are primarily tele-protection
signals and in addition, voice and data communication signals. Line trap also is known as
Wave trap. What it does is trapping the high frequency communication signals sent on the
line from the remote substation and diverting them to the telecom/ Tele-protection panel in
the substation control room (through coupling capacitor and LMU).

This is relevant in Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems for

communication among various substations without dependence on the telecom company
network. The signals are primarily tele-protection signals and in addition, voice and data
communication signals.

The Line trap offers high impedance to the high frequency communication signals
thus obstructs the flow of these signals in to the substation bus bars. If there were not to be
there, then signal loss is more and communication will be ineffective probably impossible.

1. An automatic trap primer works by pumping water into a drain trap. The water is
sent from a cold water line in small amounts each time the line runs water. There
must be an air gap between the drain.
2. A wave works by the moon because the moon gives it gravity that carries the water
up and that’s how a wave forms hint: tsunami's suck up the water and forms a giant
wave.
3. There are multiple reasons for this (WV), depending on the configuration. If the
wave traps are on different lines, they are likely tuned to different carrier
frequencies and are used to filter out.

Wave Traps are used in Power Line communication. As you can imagine, it takes
some unusual engineering to couple a radio signal onto an antenna carrying 500,000
volts. . One of the devices employed in Power line Carrier is the Line Trap, sometimes
called a Wave Trap.

A wave trap is a parallel resonant circuit installed on the power line at the local
substation. It is tuned to resonate at a specific frequency or frequencies. These frequencies
are equivalent to the frequencies of the local power line carrier transceiver.

Properly tuned, the line trap shows its highest magnitude of impedance, at these
carrier frequencies while permitting the 60 Hz power frequency to pass.

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 Generally, wave trap represented as inductor with a capacitor in Parallel. Power
Line Carrier (PLC) is a common method of Power System Communication, such as tele-
protection, voice and data communication, etc. It has developed the reputation of being one
of the most economical and reliable forms of communication and versatile in its
application .A basic PLC (Power Line Carrier) system consisting of three distinct
components.

 Signal carrying medium (HV transmission line).

 Communication apparatus (transmitters, receivers and associated components).
 Coupling/blocking equipment such as coupling capacitors, line tuners (coupling
devices) and Line Traps.

Fig-6.2: Wave Trap along with HV transmission line

Line Traps are connected in series with HV transmission lines. The main function
of the Line Trap is to present high impedance at the carrier frequency band while
introducing negligible impedance at the power frequency. The high impedance limits the
attenuation of the carrier signal within the power system by preventing the carrier signal
from being:

 Dissipated in the substation

 Grounded in the event of a fault outside the carrier transmission path
 Dissipated in a tap line or a branch of the main transmission path.

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 Line Traps are designed to meet ANSI standard C93.3, IEC standard 353 or other
international standards. The major components of a Line Trap are the main coil, tuning
device and protective device (see Fig. 3).Since Line Traps are series connected with the
HV transmission line, they must be designed to withstand the high mechanical forces
generated by the short circuit (s/c) current associated with the HV transmission system.

6.3 Construction:

The main coil of a Line Trap is an air-core dry-type power inductor. There are Line
Traps with either of two well established winding technologies: • Encapsulated design (E-
design)• Open style design (O-design).Both technologies fully comply with power system
and PLC requirements and are therefore applied over the full range of commonly specified
main coil ratings. However, in the upper limits of inductance and current ratings the
encapsulated design is the preferred concept the winding of the encapsulated design
utilizes aluminum wire or cable, whereas the open style winding employs aluminum flat-
bar conductor.

All power current carrying components utilize welded connections. High

mechanical strength of the winding is either achieved by resin impregnated, fiberglass
reinforced encapsulation (E-design) or by fiberglass spacers which are resin bonded
between turns (O-design). The winding is terminated at both ends on a system of
aluminum bars, denoted as the spiders which are tensioned together by fiberglass ties (E-
design) or fiberglass rods (O-design). These spiders are additionally used for• the electrical
connection to the Line Trap by terminal pads or studs• providing the hardware for lifting
(lugs), mounting (pedestals) and corona protection (bells, rings). Connecting the tuning and
protective device across the main coil.

Trench can provide the complete range of standard ratings (inductance, continuous
and current ratings, system voltage. Customized units are also available to meet specific
customer requirements, such as specific inductance, current (s/c or continuous), low loss
requirements, etc.

CHAPTER-7

CONCLUSION

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 The Capital investment involved in a power system for the generation,
Transmission and distribution of electrical power is so great that proper precautions must
be taken to ensure that the equipment not only operates as nearly as possible to peak
efficiencies, but also that it is protected from accidents. The purpose of the protective
relays and protective relaying systems is to operate the correct circuit breakers so as to
disconnect only the faulty equipment from the system as quickly as possible, thus
minimizing the trouble and damage caused by faults when they do occur.

Also principles of various protective relays and schemes including special

protection schemes like differential, restricted, directional and distance relays are
explained. The norms of protection of generators, transformers, lines and capacitor banks.

The procedures of testing switchgear and relays are explained. The close and trip,
indication and alarm circuits for variety of circuit breakers are also included. Each in
protective relaying and included a lot of information by way of original contribution apart
from collection of useful information from a large number of reference books, manuals of
manufacturers.

REFERENCES

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1. Electrical Power Systems by C.L Wadhwa.

2. Electrical Power Systems Technology by Stephen W. Fardo And Dale R. Patrick

3. Principles of Power Systems by V.K. Mehta.

4. Electrical power Systems by Bakshi

5. Electrical Power Systems by M. E. El-Hawary - 1995

6. Generation, distribution and utilization of electrical Energy - C. L. Wadhwa.

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