SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2012, 40(2), 239-250

© Society for Personality Research

http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2012.40.2.239

ASSOCIATIONS AMONG IMPULSIVITY, AGGRESSION, AND

SUBTHRESHOLD DEPRESSION IN CHINESE UNIVERSITY
STUDENTS

YAN JIE YANG, XIAO HUI QUI, WANG LIN, ZHENG XUE QIAO, XIU XIAN YANG,
AND HAI LIAN SUN
Harbin Medical University

The purpose in this research was to identify associations among subthreshold depression
and the personality factors of impulsivity and aggression. A multistage, stratified sampling
procedure was used to select participants (N = 5,245). A Chinese version (Wang, Wang,
& Mahong, 1999) of the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Ward, & Mendelson, 1961)
was used to determine depressive symptoms; participants who scored 5 or higher were
assigned to the subthreshold depression group and were invited to be tested on the Barratt
Impulsiveness Scale (Patton, Stanford, & Barratt, 1995) and on the Buss-Perry Aggression
Questionnaire (Buss & Perry, 1992). Results showed that moderate depression was prevalent
among Chinese university students; in particular, students with higher scores for impulsivity,
physical aggression, and verbal aggression were susceptible to depression. Verbal aggression
correlated with depressive scores, but this relationship was strong only among female
participants (r = .985, p < .05).

Keywords: subthreshold depression, impulsivity, aggression, Chinese university students.

Depression is a severe mental disorder, the onset of which has been related
to environmental, genetic, and personality factors. In the general population
depressive disorder has a lifetime prevalence rate of 16.2% and a 12-month

Yan Jie Yang, Xiao Hui Qui, Wang Lin, Zheng Xue Qiao, Xiu Xian Yang, and Hai Lian Sun,
Psychology Department, Public Health Institute, Harbin Medical University.
This research was supported by the overseas scholars program of the Education Department of
Heilongjiang Province (1151hz043), the China Medical Board of New York Inc (05-813), the
Provincial Science Foundation Council general project grant (D200806), and the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (81072381); all being grants made to Professor Yan Jie Yang.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Yan Jie Yang, Professor, Psychology
Department, Public Health Institute, Harbin Medical University, 157 Baojian Road, Nangang
District, Harbin 150081, China. Email: yanjie1965@yahoo.com.cn

239
240 IMPULSIVITY, AGGRESSION, AND DEPRESSION

prevalence rate of 6.6%, making it one of the most common mental disorders
(Kessler et al., 2003). As a group, new university students are undergoing a
critical transitioning period. As a result, depression has been highlighted in
university students and, in extreme cases, may lead to suicide.
Subthreshold depression is a prognostic variable for major depression that
is very prevalent in China (Cuijpers, De Graaf, & van Dorsselaer, 2004) and
decreases quality of life. People with subthreshold depression have an increased
risk of developing major depression (Cuijpers et al., 2004).
In the current study we examined the relationship between impulsivity
and subthreshold depression. There is less information pertaining to cases of
depression, and subthreshold depression may manifest a weak relationship
to impulsivity. It is relevant that in an epidemiological study it was found
that impulsive suicide attempts were associated with high scores on the Beck
Hopelessness Scale (Beck, Weissman, Lester, & Trexler, 1974), but with low
depression scores (Simon et al., 2001). Impulsivity is complex and it is unclear
whether or not increased impulsivity correlates with depression. Therefore,
in this study we set out to explore more thoroughly the association between
impulsivity and subthreshold depression.
Matsuura, Hashimoto, and Toichi (2009) found that about half of the inmates
of a correctional facility were depressed, and the main effects of self-esteem
and aggression were found to influence depression. However, in a previous
study, Bjork, Dougherty, and Moeller (1997) analyzed behavioral data from their
ongoing studies into aggression and found that more aggressive women tended to
score higher on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), than did more aggressive
men. Therefore, in the current study we sought to confirm whether or not there is
any association between aggression and subthreshold depression, and if there is
any gender-based difference therein.

Method

Study Population
The study was conducted with students at universities in Harbin, the capital of
Heilongjiang Province and the tenth largest city in China. Harbin serves as a key
political and economic center in northeastern China.
There are two main types of universities in China: national key universities,
and general institutions. A national key university receives a high level of support
from the central government of the People’s Republic of China whereas general
institutions are administered by the provinces. As the type on university an
individual attends can decide their social position and worth, students in a national
key university face more stress from academic performance requirements than do
 IMPULSIVITY, AGGRESSION, AND DEPRESSION 241
students at general institutions. There are 14 universities in Harbin; three of them
are key national universities and 11 are general institutions.

Sample Size and Sampling Technique

Stratified random cluster sampling was employed in this study. To acquire
a representative sample of university students in China, two key national
universities and four general institutions in Harbin were randomly chosen. The
distribution of samples from each university was then calculated according to the
proportion of students who attend the two main types of universities. A stratified
two-staged cluster selection of university students in full-time courses during the
2007-2008 academic year was used, with the sample being stratified into five
grades (i.e., first, second, third, and fourth years, and postgraduate year); classes
were randomly selected from these grades.
In this way, 6,000 students were selected from a total of 274,041 students
in Harbin. In total, 2,844 students (1,493 female, 1,351 male) with BDI
scores of 5 or higher were categorized as belonging to the depressive group;
these individuals were invited to be tested on the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale
(BIS), and the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (Buss & Perry, 1992). All
participants were free of any organic brain lesions and of any type of personality
disorder; none currently had a psychotic disorder.

Procedure
Approval for this study was granted by the Ethics Committee of Harbin
Medical University, the Education Committee of Heilongjiang Province, and the
institutional review committee of each of the selected universities. The selected
students were advised of the purposes, benefits, and possibly adverse effects of
the study, and they were then invited to participate. In addition, it was established
that all participants had been free of alcohol or drug use for at least 72 hours prior
to the test. Participants were advised that the questionnaires should be finished
within 15 minutes. The investigation was timed so as not to be at the beginning
or end of the semester.

Measurement
Depressive symptoms in this study were assessed with the 21-item BDI. The
BDI, developed by Dr. Aaron T. Beck, is a self-report inventory, which has been
found to be a reliable and valid instrument (Richter, Werner, Heerlein, Kraus,
& Sauer, 1998) in assessing the extent and severity of 21 common depressive
symptoms, such as sleep disturbance, guilt, and sadness. Each statement in this
inventory has a possible score range of from 0 to 3, with a maximum total score
of 63. A score of from 0 to 4 is considered normal; scores between 5 and 13
indicates borderline clinical depression; a score between 14 and 20 indicates
242 IMPULSIVITY, AGGRESSION, AND DEPRESSION

moderate depression; and between 21 and 63 indicates severe depression. In

the current study, the internal consistency of BDI scores was .851. For logistic
regression analysis, BDI scores of 5 or higher were categorized as being
indicative of subthreshold depression.
Impulsivity has been described as a major personality and temperament
dimension in several theoretical models (Lecrubier, Braconnier, Said, & Payan,
1995). The Barratt Impulsiveness Scale BIS-11-CH (i.e., the Chinese version of
the BIS-11; Li & Chen, 2007) was modified from the original 30-item BIS-11
by removing five items showing poor item-total correlation. It therefore consists
of 25 self-report items, each of which is rated on a 5-point Likert scale; the
BIS-11-CH has been found to be a reliable measure of stable, long-standing,
impulsive behavior patterns.
The BIS-11-CH consists of three factors: inability to plan (absence of
weighing up long-term consequences of actions), cognitive impulsivity (rapid
shifts in attention/impatience with complexity), and motor impulsivity (acting
impetuously). At .83 among the 25 items the BIS-11-CH’s internal consistency
was found to be satisfactory in the current study.
Aggression is feelings of anger and hatred that may result in threatening or
violent behavior. Aggressive symptoms in this study were assessed using the
30-item Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BAQ; Buss & Perry, 1992).
There is no consensus as to a precise definition of the concept of aggression,
but this questionnaire is considered to allow comparisons of internal aggression
between participants and controls. The revised Chinese version (Maxwell, 2007)
includes five subscales: physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, hostility,
and self-oriented attack. The internal consistency of this inventory is .85, which
suggests that the BAQ can be used with the Chinese population.
All items of the BIS and the BAQ are answered on a 5-point Likert scale
(never, rarely, occasionally, often, almost always) with 5 indicating the most
impulsive and aggressive response.

Data Analysis
SPSS version 13.0 was used for statistical analysis. All tests were two-tailed,
and the significance level was set at .05. Sociodemographic variables of age,
gender, ethnicity, and study year were compared between groups, through
the use of 2 tests. A t test was performed to determine differences, if any, in
psychological measures between the two groups. Logistic regression was used
to assess the relationship between subthreshold depressive symptoms and the
traits of impulsivity and aggression. Adjustments were made for demographics
at baseline. Results are reported as odds ratios (ORs) with a 95% confidence
interval (CI).
 IMPULSIVITY, AGGRESSION, AND DEPRESSION 243
Results

Participants’ Sociodemographic Data

A total of 6,000 questionnaires were distributed, of which 5,479 were
returned (response rate = 91.3%). Questionnaires in which in excess of 20%
of questions were unanswered were excluded, giving a total of 5,245 students
who had completed the screening questionnaire (completion rate = 87.4%). Of
these, 2,563 (48.9%) were male and 2,682 (51.1%) were female. The average
age of the participants was 21.3 years (SD = 2.2), ranging from 16 to 35 years.
Sociodemographic factors of the sample are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Sociodemographic Factors of Students

Variables n Depressed Nondepressed 2 df p

Age
16-25 5,059 586 4,473 4.466 1 .035
25-35 186 31 155
Gender
Male 2,563 306 2,254 .413 1 .520
Female 2,682 308 2,374
Ethnicity
Han 4,878 568 4,310 1.312 1 .252
Other (minority groups) 367 50 317
Study year
1st 1,572 190 1,382 2.292 4 .682
2nd 1,294 160 1,134
3rd 1,275 151 1,124
4th 717 75 642
Postgraduate 387 41 346
Major
Science 790 122 668 26.206 5 .000
Engineering 2,409 265 2,144
Medicine 579 50 529
Literature 386 62 324
Management 662 66 596
Others 419 52 367
University classification
Key national university 1,567 176 1,391 .604 1 .437
General institution 3,678 441 3,237

Note: N = 5,245.

Prevalence of Depressive Symptoms

The mean BDI score was 6.31 (SD = 6.1), with a range of 0–63. Among the
participants, 40.1% had a score between 5 and 13 (indicating borderline clinical
depression); 8.4% had a score between 14 and 20 (moderate depression); and
244 IMPULSIVITY, AGGRESSION, AND DEPRESSION

3.3% had a score between 21 and 63 (severe depression). Overall, 51.8%

presented depressive symptoms, and 11.7% (n = 617) had a BDI score of 14 or
higher.

Correlations among Depressive Symptoms

No significant association was found between depressive symptoms and
gender, ethnicity, year of study, or university classification (see Table 1). In order
to investigate relationships between individual depressive scores, and impulsivity
and aggression, respectively, a bivariate logistic model was employed to
determine which symptoms of impulsivity or aggression contributed most to
depression among these participants. The impulsivity scores and subscores of
participants with depressive symptoms, as well as comparisons thereof, are
shown in Table 2. On the basis of a bivariate logistic model – with BIS scores
as dependent variables and depression scores as independent variables – it was
found that depression scores contributed significantly to total BIS scores. For all
participants (N = 2,844), impulsivity correlated significantly with depression.
Depressive factor scores correlated significantly with motor impulsivity scores
(OR = 1.894, p = .000), planning impulsivity (inability to plan) scores (r = .930, p
= .049), and cognitive impulsivity scores (r = 1.792, p = .007). For all participants,
as shown in Table 2, depression scores were found to have a negative relationship
with planning impulsivity scores, but they had a positive relationship with motor
impulsivity scores and cognitive impulsivity scores. The logistic regression
results showed that physical aggression, hostility, self-oriented attack, anger,
and verbal aggression could each have significant effects on depression. The
results showed that, as measured by the BIS, a lack of sense of the future may be
related to hopelessness and depression. We also found that physical aggression
and verbal aggression each had a negative relationship with depression. The
relationships among BIS scores, aggression scores, and depression scores were
examined according to gender. Tables 3 and 4 contain the logistic regressions of
depressive symptoms, impulsivity, and aggression subscale scores among male
and female participants, respectively. There was no significant gender-based
difference between BIS scores and depression scores. For both female and male
participants, nonplanning impulsivity scores, motor impulsivity scores, and
cognitive impulsivity scores correlated significantly with depression scores. For
participants with depression, depressive symptoms correlated with BIS scores;
however, among female participants verbal aggression scores correlated strongly
with depressive scores (r = .985, p < .05), but there was no such correlation
among male participants. No other subscale of the aggression scores showed
a gender-based difference; the depression scores correlated significantly with
hostility, self-oriented attack, physical aggression, and anger in both genders.
 IMPULSIVITY, AGGRESSION, AND DEPRESSION 245
Table 2. Logistic Regression of Depressive Symptoms, Impulsivity, and Aggression Subscale
Scores

 Wald2 p OR OR
(95% CI)

Planning impulsivity -.073 58.638 .000 .930 [1.056, 1.096]

Motor impulsivity .015 1.845 .174 1.015 [.965, 1.006]
Cognitive impulsivity -.004 .064 .801 .996 [.976, 1.032]
Verbal aggression -.010 6.911 .009 .990 [1.002, 1.017]
Hostility .045 158.787 .000 1.046 [.950, .963]
Self-oriented attack .032 104.427 .000 1.033 [.963, .974]
Physical aggression -.013 16.842 .000 .987 [1.007, 1.020]
Anger .012 9.871 .002 1.012 [.981, .996]

Table 3. Logistic Regression of Depressive Symptoms, Impulsivity, and Aggression Subscale

Scores Among Male Participants

 Wald2 p OR OR
(95% CI)

Planning impulsivity -.087 43.046 .000 .916 [.893, .941]

Motor impulsivity .021 1.769 .183 1.021 [.990, 1.053]
Cognitive impulsivity -.013 .410 .522 .988 [.950, 1.026]
Verbal aggression -.006 1.449 .229 .994 [.984, 1.004]
Hostility .044 79.579 .000 1.045 [1.035, 1.055]
Self-oriented attack .030 44.284 .000 1.031 [1.021, 1.040]
Physical aggression -.012 6.794 .009 .988 [.979, .997]
Anger .011 4.420 .036 1.012 [1.001, 1.022]

Table 4. Logistic Regression of Depressive Symptoms, Impulsivity, and Aggression Subscale

Scores Among Female Participants

 Wald2 p OR OR
(95% CI)

Planning impulsivity -.055 15.838 .000 .947 [.921, .973]

Motor impulsivity .017 1.232 .267 1.017 [.987, 1.048]
Cognitive impulsivity .000 .000 .993 1.000 [.961, 1.041]
Verbal aggression -.015 7.448 .000 .985 [.974, .996]
Hostility .046 79.119 .000 1.047 [1.037, 1.058]
Self-oriented attack .034 59.005 .000 1.034 [1.026, 1.043]
Physical aggression -.020 13.916 .000 .980 [.970, .990]
Anger .016 7.923 .005 1.016 [1.005, 1.027]

Discussion

This is one of many epidemiological studies being undertaken to examine

depression among Chinese university students. We found the prevalence of
246 IMPULSIVITY, AGGRESSION, AND DEPRESSION

depressive symptoms in this demographic was 11.7%, a result that does not
align with that of Bayram and Bilgel (2008). This disparity might originate from
the use of different methods, different appraisal standards, and conducting the
research in a different country. For a Chinese person, university is an important
transitioning life stage and undergoing such a transition may lead to an increased
risk of depression. However, the prevalence rate of depressive symptoms in the
current study is similar to that in the general population.
In the current study, our finding that there were no gender-based differences in
depressive symptoms is similar to those of some previous researchers (Bayram &
Bilgel, 2008; Bostanci et al., 2005). One might speculate that depressive people
are less impulsive than those who are not depressive; the results of the current
study suggest that impulsivity scores are higher in the depressive group, which is
consistent with the results of Corruble, Benyamina, Bayle, Falissard, and Hardy
(2003).
However, in our study, among depressive participants, depressive symptoms
correlated most strongly with planning rather than with cognitive and motor
impulsivity. Planning impulsivity, in turn, had a negative relationship with
depression meaning that people who always follow a prescribed order are more
likely to have depressive symptoms. Even when such people prepare sound plans
for the future, they could become nervous and anxious if things do not develop
as expected. Because this group tends to be inflexible and very rigid in handling
problems, they will consistently be puzzled by problems. For this reason, it is
difficult for them to find ways to experience emotional catharsis.
Swann, Steinberg, Lijffijt, and Moeller (2008) found no gender-based
difference among the impulsivity measures although gender effects on the
impulsivity measures were specifically examined by comparing the BIS-11-CH
factor scores and depression. In this regard, gender was not considered in further
statistical analyses. In the current study, although no gender-based difference was
found in the depressive symptoms in the first 2 tests, logistic regression was
used to assess the relationship between subthreshold depressive symptoms and
the traits of impulsivity. Therefore, the results of the current study gave a more
detailed assessment of this relationship. Nonetheless, further research in this area
is required.
There have been only a few other published reports concerning the relationship
between aggressive behavior and depression (Bjork et al., 1997; Easterbrooks &
Biesecker, 1996) and in some of them no association whatsoever has been found.
However, the number of participants in each of those studies was small.
The important goal in this study was to examine gender-based differences in
aggression and subthreshold depression. Previous researchers have suggested
that male college students are more overtly and relationally aggressive than
females (Grant et al., 2002) which is not consistent with the findings in our study.
 IMPULSIVITY, AGGRESSION, AND DEPRESSION 247
Although our data are inconsistent with those gained in previous research into
gender-based differences in aggression, our pattern of results may be unique to
Chinese university students. For example, given the greater physical strength
of young adults relative to older adults, aggression may be used less frequently
among males and females as a means of resolving conflict. Alternatively,
university students may be more effective than other sections of the population
in resolving interpersonal disputes, thus explaining similar rates. However, the
verbal aggression subscores show a small gender-based difference. For females,
verbal aggression is a protective factor vis-à-vis the depressive state, but it is not
for males. This means that females who possess the personality factor of verbal
aggression may be able to express and release their depressive feelings and then
relax – at least more readily than males.
In addition, the mean levels of overall tendency to be aggressive were also
significantly higher among depressive participants. Higher levels of anger,
hostility, and self-oriented attack could be attributed to the increased depressive
psychopathology found among samples. However, physical aggression and
verbal aggression each correlated negatively with depression. This means that
a person with depressive symptoms tended to have low physical aggression
and verbal aggression scores. It is widely suspected that depressive individuals
possess symptoms of motor retardation and of being low in morale (Breznitz &
Sherman, 1987); therefore, in facing problems, they are likely to present weak
reactions and poor concentration, and will only rarely demonstrate verbal or
physical aggression. However, in our study subscales of anger, hostility, and
self-oriented attack showed positive relationships, suggesting that a person with
higher scores in these areas would be more likely to have depressive symptoms.
Previous researchers have demonstrated that depressed individuals have high
suicidal tendencies (Kandel, Raveis, & Davies, 1991), which explains why they
tend also to receive high scores in the self-oriented attack subscale. In fact, some
depressed people can suddenly become furious and indignant, but later feel
disappointed and hate themselves for it. They may even feel rage about their
sudden anger which is symptomatic not only of a failure to resolve problems,
but also of feeling vulnerable. Any barrier preventing a depressed person from
realizing goals may be thought of as a personality defect, which in turn, will
usually stimulate an underlying sense of inferiority. It is little surprise, then, that
many depressed individuals display anger or hostility.
Indeed, aggression scores have been consistently reported as being elevated
among participants afflicted by major depression; these scores tend to correlate
positively with the severity of depressive symptoms, and to decline following
depression treatment (Abrams et al., 2004). Thus, the results of the current
study support the assertion that it is important to explore further the relationship
between aggressive personality and the tendency to present depressive symptoms.
248 IMPULSIVITY, AGGRESSION, AND DEPRESSION

Conclusion

We found that moderate depression was prevalent among Chinese university

students. Students with high impulsivity, physical aggression, and verbal
aggression scores were more susceptible to depression. We found it interesting
that there was a correlation between depressive scores and verbal aggression in
female participants, but not in male participants.

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