— 9.6 ‘Ss WER SERIE: I PO tion P with the property that taxters tax" ‘ funct ynomial is @ A poly! P(x) = % ction of constants a, a), . . . g, lect We have for some integer and collection OF COATES ay polynomials are always (or jomials are also polynomials. Tp in ite i rals - i 4 ‘ and indefinite ono f polynomials that results from considering ie set Siders am extern? ote fOrM dex: THIS Produces an ity et ed per srk pant neo expression of the form “= 9.30) S do + A,X + Gx? + teetige,. @- 2 where do, 41, 42+ represent constants and x represents a Variable, of power series are a and xpressed in be To apply the techniques of calculus to a function that is series form, fa) = > a,x", "0 J; that is, those values of x for which the we must first consider the domain of. ies in (a) is a geometric series With first tem Series converges. For example, the seri a=1 ior = and ratio r = x and consequently converges Precisely when kl<.n (9.31) fact, for lef <1, Sx n=0 EXAMPLE 1 SOLUTION Fora fixed Value of x, (11 pre lim n+2 Bet m= (ge ] = lim nt n+]ge - 545 The ratio test implies that the Series ja] > 1. The question of convergence c whens when ll ‘S | and diverges when x= When x = 1, the power series is yey (-1y 1 remains, Aon + 1’ M alternating series with O" has an interval for its domain. That this is true in general mo ms of functions Sefoed by power series is a result of the following lemma. Suppose 5) a,x” is a power series. (i) If the series converges at c, then the series converges absolutely at x whenever |x| <|el. Ts (ii) If the series diverges at b, then the series diverges’ at x whenever Ix] > [ol. PROOF @ Since > a,c” converges, lim ayc 0. Aconvergent sequence is bounded, so a number M exists with [a,c*| = M for all . i <1and integers n = 0. Suppose x is arbitrarily chosen with |x| < Ie]. Then R| a the geometric series with first term M and ratio |”), SM z|" azo |¢ converges.9 SEQUENCES AND SERIES | la, Al “hi Fd gas However, lave" = Joa = so the comparison test implies that S lant’ mo converges and that the series is absolutely convergent When [x] (ii) This part of the lemma can be proved directly, part (i). ‘Suppose the series diverges at b but converges for some x with lhe | 0 exists and (a) > a,x” converges absolutely if [x] < R, () a,x" diverges if bl>R. = sear number R given in part (ii is called the radius of convergent series. A sn ri ‘ype Gi) is said to have an infinite radius of convergens®, es of type (i) has radius of convergence zero. The interval on which the series converges’ is calcd interval ofr Bence for the series. The behavior of the power series at the endpoin's® Of comes tttezmined by applying one of he ese fey canvataente ones of constants. Since only the comtes term ag remains when a power M + yx tary? 4... A ies com _X" is evaluated at zero, all power set at zero, -~wee p amPLe 3 poWER SERIES 9.6 Find the radius of convergence for the 547 = Power series nlx" = SOLUTION For any fixed value of x we can apply the rat tio tes lim (+ Dtxntt ase nlx" Consequently for all x # 0, this seri therefore zero, and the series conve; Find the domain of the function defined by the power seri T series fx) = > 27 ee ety, 3 e+" Sit get ee eae SOLUTION The domain of f is the interval e dom of conver i determine this, we apply the ratio test. ea Poweteies: Jb gre ge, _ |@t+iPti” : Tim [S70 Lig — a m tim Care 7 3h = ial. wai Consequently, the series converges when 3|x| < 1, that is, when |x| < i and . 1 . diverges when |x| > 3. That is, the series converges when x is in the interval (-1/3, 1/3) and diverges when x > 1/3 and when x < — 1/3. ‘To determine whether the series converges at the endpoints of the interval, we must examine the values individually. For x = 1/3, el =o Which converges by comparison with the p-series 73. Forx = —1/3, 7 (-3) = 3 s (-D" = wel mow td converges absolutely and hence converges: The interval of convergence of the ; : ‘ Oo series, and consequently the domain of f, is [-1, 1/3).9 SEQUENCES AND SERIES ‘7 548 7 “The general form of a power series 1S S age - a, (9.34) ies of this form is said i stant. A power series of th ite where 4 * form is simply a linear translation of the case when Med The general form is ransation of the ase whey ng, ‘amples of this section illustrate that or nda convergence in case a + Qiis the same as when a = 0. . os Find the interval of convergence of the power series EXAMPLE 4 . yy 1 1 S ey Sa ew - 7O- tsa ye. n a SOLUTION : Applying the ratio test to the series: ee li Cunt lim —— |x — | = [x Tl lim as sie = =f v= 4 nove Nt 1 r moe] (gy @ =D ” Thus, the series converges if |x — 1| <1; that is, if x is in (0, 2). The ses diverges if |x — 1] > 1. When x = 0, the series diverges since S (-p"_ < 1 21 =p =S cepts sh zope zope Pe When x = 2, the series converges since Sevray _ Seep mt n ae LG The interval of convergence is (0, 2]. EXAMPLE 5 Find the domain of the function defined by fa) = Seo nao SOLUTION SinceEXERCISE SET 9.6 tne series converges if [2x - 1] 3> > that is, if x = <3 ‘The inequality [2x — 1] <3 is equivalent t es : io = < =? < 2x <4. The series converges if — |< oe 1 <3, and hence to 7 and diverges if x < — 1 or Whenx = —1, diverges. When x = 2, diverges. Consequently, the domain of fis (~ 1, 2). EXERCISE SET 9.6 Find the radius of convergence and interval of convergence of the power series in Exercises | through 26. Daa x" S (in n) x" ae x nao nt 7.>* = (= 1"x" moon! mo Qn+D! net me i. S _(3x)" 16. > arctan n 17. > @-2)" 18. > no =o > (n + 2)? — 2)" 20. > nl — 2" so no @-2 n+l 19,¢ AND SERIES ’ 9 SEQUENCE: In ne + 1)» - 2" 22. ) see 2 ne D | 2a, > Mx = 5p a-0 M+) 26. 3 GEt ayn = (2x +" = 25. = a no 2 Find the domain of each function described in Exercises 27 throyey, 4 i at 28. fx) = Sy Ss D 30. fix) = > Get Ip 29. fxd = Sez a 2, Infa +1) & x — 3)" 32. fx) = 3 ln + 7 = > — J EM Ba +t “AG Darang 3. fy = De 2" 34. 0) = De ye tp Find the values of x for which the series in Exercises 35 through 40 co - Sn 4 36. S So ae — 38. #35 Lene 1 laa ae 39. > (cos.xy" 40. > may _ n=0 41. Find the interval of convergence for the series = [2+ (-)1". 42. Suppose that the ratio test applied to = @_ 0" gives lim n fo a+! x Show that D nha, x" also converges absolutely for any integer k and ever) no value of x with |x] <|xo|. 43. Suppose that the power series 5° a,x" and > b,x" have radius of come m0 mo gence R, and R, respectively. What can be said about the radius of com gence R of = (ay + b,) x"? 44. all 1, WHEE . Suppose the series = a,x" has the property that 7 2x" for |x] < 1 to find a power series repre- 1-x 7 n=O sentation for f(x) = aSOLUTION «¢ representation for /(x) means fingin, Ba Setieg Finding a power serie: Ss » for each x in the interval of c 4, a,x" fo! Onvergence a such that fi) = & series. Since of oe eon, 1 7) -a-x of Theorem 9.33 that ) -o[S] = Sa n=0 it follows from part (i) 1 _! =p, a -3x (- for |x| < 1. The series S nx"! diverges atx = —1andatx = 1 nel 7 80 the ime of convergence is (—1, 1) Find a power series representation for In(I — x). EXAMPLE 2 SOLUTION We again start with the power series By integration, © —In(1 — x) = So Ind - x) = — eaneT for |x| < 1. Note that =- i ies i when x 1, this series is a convergent alternating series, $0 n2=—- yo Monti” When x = 1, the series i i: i convergence is [— 1, D. is the divergent harmonic series, so the ine XAMPLE 3 Show that es = 3) anon!DIFFEREN i Ves 3c goLuTION Applying the ratio test to = wa gives yn 2 qj + 1)! tim |-S* VEY Lj, - n= an me [ae | % m independent of x, so the series converges for all values of x. Let fo = >=. nao Me We see that f(0) = 1. To show that f(x) = e* it suffices to show that f@) = fs), since the natural exponential function is the only function with these properties. It follows from part (i) of Theorem 9.35 that vo ext Fo= 2 nt Ss x x =Zeomn t*tytet = Dane. for all values of x. Consequently, for all real numbers x. Qo 1 Approximate [ e-* dx to within 107°. SOLUTION The function given by f(x) = e~* is continuous and hence integrable. We cannot use the fundamental theorem of calculus for the evaluation of its integral since has no elementary antiderivative. However, by modifying the power series in the previous example, we can express this function as = (-xy _ S (ED Pee -yore a = (oye! = [eran 3 ane554 AND SERIES 4 Ci" Gy ' 7 f et d= =, nin + 1)” 9 SEQUENCES Thus Corollary 9.24, the mt . ting series. By ial vhich is an alternat r not exceeding the magnituy, ‘Um sites the true value with erro! le Of the (Ph, term: epee ty (m + I)!Qm + 3) tient at = 1 and then at m = fing By evaluating this quo not exceed 10-* is m = that integer for which this value does “3 “This *PPro, nin is 2 n+ oo 2 (- I" CD [- Cae ~ nin + 1 O01 -00001 _ 001 , = .09966 al 3 10 7 767. The error in the approximation is at most the magnitude of the third term tis is alternating series Genres 1” ——_—_ = ~ 2.4 x 2. 2+ DI2-2 + 3) 42 le: a EXERCISE SET 9.7 Find a power series ee for the functions described in Exercise | = > x", for |x| <1, et = se © forall, c= non! through 20. Use the fact that; and the arithmetic and catwatué o Properties of power series. 1 1 fy = 1 2. fo) = 1 3. fx) = a+ 4. fo) = In + x) 1 5. fi) = 1 6. fa) = —1_ : JO" 5a Oy 7. fa) = ION =e 8. fx) = arctan x 9. = ee IO." 73 10. fix) = In + x) LU. fey = —1 _ 2 i a 12, fay = LAE =x 13. fy = = 1 7 14. fo) = 1s, = FO) = xing + x) 16. fx) = Inca + 0K +)EXERCISE — ae 2x 17. flO = 7 338 18. f(x) = [ edt 19. fo) [rea 20. fix) = [ le Use a power series representation to cises 2! and 22 to within 10-4, * 2 3 a. | eV dx .[ 1 , 22. | toa 23. Use integration by parts to find f In(1 + x)de i power series representation for x In(1 + x). Compare fae regaled result in Exercise 15. is result with the + In@ + 1)) dt Soran a PProximate the definite integrals in Exer- 24. Suppose that f is a function with a power series representation of the form fly = Zant". If f(0) = 0 and f’(x) = f(x) for all x, determine the constants in the power s¢ ies representation, 25. Suppose that f is a function with a power series Tepresentation of the form fx) = > ae”. Iff(0) = 0, f'(0) = 1 andf"(x) = —f(x) forall x, determine the constants in the power series representation. 26. Consider the functions f and g defined by = yur _ecy Sx) = ae DI and g(x) = = Omi Compute f"(x) and g’(x) (and be observant). 27. Consider the series given in Example 2 on p. 552 for In(I — x). Let S1ytth ent 1 x = 5, and show that In 2 also can be expressed as n2=> Aorta + 1 28. Since tan 2/4 = 1, can be found by evaluating 4 arctan 1. (a) Find a power series for arctan x (see Exercise 8) and determine the number of terms of the series that need to be summed to ensure that [4 arctan 1 — x| < 10->. ; , (b) The single precision version of the scientific programming language FORTRAN requires the value of 2x to be within 10°’. How many terms of this series must be summed to obtain this degree of accuracy? 29. Exercise 28 details a rather inefficient means of obtaining an approxima- i i ved substantially by observing that tion to zt. ‘The method can be imtivaluating the series for arctan at 1/2 a4 = arctan 1/2 + arctan 1/3 and eval if and at 1/3. Show that this identity holds and determine ud ae iotneeas of each series that must be summed to ensure an approx! 10-3,9 sEQUENCES 4 ND SERIES 556 be q ing © can be deduceg 30. Another form 5 arctan 1/239. Determine the numbee™ the arc ved t0 ensure an approximation go of ms ved mathematician Friedrich With, itn Ja for comput jaa 4 zeries that must be Sum med German astronomer athematic : + Tie) used the romero ST equation 9" + AY" (2 a EB, misa positive integer, in his study of planetary motion. The ya ‘i equation is known as the Bessel function of order m, de lig * Y the se, 5 (= prenn Ps Le) = > em + mE he differential equation. (The Besse] tly of heat flow in cylinders, vibration tg inge® cing satisfies d and many other n° in the stu‘ Show that Jr, ibration of chains, also important membranes, the V applications.) Putnam exercises: 32. For 0 0. We need to determine the constants dy, 41, yy When f is evaluated at zero, all terms of the series but the first vanish, so a = fO). Using Theorem 9.35 to differentiate f gives fF) = D nayx""! = a, + 2agx + Bayx? +0 +, m= so a, = f'). This procedure can be continued by repeated differentiation: FO) = Ln = Yayx"?, so a= f"0)=2-1a, and ay = £0, fF!) = DY na — I — 2)a,x"™, = so £m) = 3+2+1a; and a - FO. In general, -f°@ a nl for all nonnegative integers 1, if we define O! = 1 and let f (x) = f(x). The following theorem is a direct consequence of these observations. If a function f has a power series representation a,x" with radius of Sa convergence R > 0, then the power series is unique and is given by =f O) n fe) = Sak =o for x in (—R, R). ‘The power series representation given in Theorem 9.36 is called the Maclaurin Series for f. The generalization of Theorem 9.36 to power series centered at anee - i lowing coroll . ais contained in the following ary. This series; for f at a. The Maclaurin series for f is ‘iseqa isa “= 0, (See the Historical Note.) ALLY the Tye ly arbitrary valu Taylor series series centered at If f has a power series representation at a with radius of series at a 1S unique and is given by ci te (9.37) ; R> 0, then the powe COROLLARY 1 fi ( fla) = > Prt y — ay 5 forxin(a~R.@ +R) While ant, they do not completely answer the tions about functions and their power serles representations. They tell us i entation when one is known to exist, but not when : we find a power series repress expect to find such @ representation. The following result is more importan tin this regard, and answers question (i). these results are import Ifa function fhasn + | derivatives on an open interval / about a and (9.38) in this interval, then a number between x and a exists with THEOREM where fa) = PQ + R(x). a gti) Px) = sEOu - a) and io tt (ne) (5) (, - a)! (n+ IL R,(x) =" PROOF by ‘Assume that P,(x) is defined as stated in the theorem and that Ry(t)'s ced R(x) = fx) - Px) for an arbitrary but fixed value of x i i trary b xinl, We representation given in the teaens ace (x) must have we 4EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2 Find the Maclaurin polynomial of degree {Wo for f(x) = 4 remainder to find a bound for the error introduced when this Poy Wy y ay to approximate cos .01. SOLUTION Since f(x) = cos x, f'(x) = - sinx, f"Q) = = 008, andj e 2 4 Px) = f(0) + xf'(0) + 7 0) 7 a “14+ F(t 2 3 gm; 3 4 ayy 228 2 an s(x) 6 gins for some number £ between x and zero, 2 Thus, os .01 = B(.01) = 1 - a = 99995. Since jsin &| <1, the maximum error in this approximation i 3 Chere S—* 1.67 X 6 IR(.0H) = jw sin & ; ui Consequently, cos 01 ~,999950, where al 6 decimal places ltd a ®™* 5 i Repeat the calculations in Example | using instead itn polynomial for F0) = cos x,goLuTION | The third degree Maclaurin polynomial is given by ah oe xr xe = —->4+=f" =|-=—> pe gen |], me nel Pa = 1-5 ef =1 7 tGO= 1-> ssion as P,(x). Hence, cos .01 ~ P;(.01) = .99995. the same expres Before dismissing this example as superfluous, however, let us consider the remainder term R3(x). Since f (x) = cos x and |cos 4 = 1, 01)* op c0s § This shows that the approximation to cos .01 is much more accurate than deduced in Example 1. In fact, [R01] = coy 5 = 24 4.17 x 10°". cos .01 = .999950000 js accurate to all 9 decimal places listed. o ‘The following corollary to Theorem 9.38 answers the question of which functions have power series representations. If a function f has derivatives of all orders on an open interval about a and Pe) if lim R,(x) = 0 for all x in that interval, then f has the Taylor series representation = Fm) fix) = yee — ay" aay, ‘ink for all x in the interval. wees Find the Maclaurin seri i i i .claurin series for the sine and cosine functions. SOLUTION Letting f(x) = sin x, we have f(x) = sinx f'() = cosx f'@) = —sinx Fx) = —cosx 1 FO (@) = sinx) (0) is zero when 7 18 even and is alternately 1 and —; co 4 ; In general, FO vurin series is consequenUy Mn odd. The ‘9 7 = a FOX 4-2 = D(H pyre sinx = * — ! 7! n=0 Qn +p all real numbers. (You can use the Tatio test es represents sin x for all values of to hat converBe® i x, We shoy lim R(x) = 0 tha a series t t this seri this.) To show that ues Of x. ia here is a numbe; for eae fixed but arbitrary value of x, t T & between x ang with _ antl feed (Ey RO = Ge DE = _ inst Since | f"*" (S| is either |cos ()| or |sin (S|, [F"*? (| = 1 ana afr ROL = Gp ca for all x, lim —-— = 0, so Since D 7 i converses for slim G+ DI i lim |R,@O| = lim =0. nox (n+ 1)! While the Maclaurin series for cos x can be derived in the same manner as sin x, it is easier to apply Theorem 9.35 once the series representation for sint is known. x cos x = D, sinx = D, Bes = x oe =1-5 ra a The power series representati certai: 7 wii d to i . ions of ill be referres this and later mat in functions wil matics courses. For fe list the most fre quently used series. ease of reference, we (9.40) = > =. forallxinR neon! : (9.41) sine = 3 (oy i z= 1) Gra pr forallxinR, (9.42) cosx = 5 pe 2 DO" Gpp forall xin R, (9.43) i ) x) for |x| <1.exencisE SET 9.8 he first four terms of the Maclaurin series for the functions described in dt : ie «| through 6 by using Theorem 9.38. Loe 2. fx) = 3, fl) = Ine + D 4. fix) = cos 2x 5. fo = arctan x 6. fi) =x + 3x41 In Exercises 7 through 16, find the Taylor polynomial of degree four for the function f about the number a. Find the remainder for the Taylor polynomial. 2 fy =ea=l 8. fix) = ea = -2 . x a 9. fix) = sinx,a = > 10. fix) = cosx,a = 5 =tanx,a= 7 12. fx) =4a=1 IL. fe) = tanx,a = - fo) = a = 1B. fly = Vx,a = 4 14. f) = Inx,a=1 18. fo) =x? +24+e%,a=1 16. fc) = x2 + 2x +3,a=1 17. Use the Maclaurin polynomial of degree three to approximate sin .01 and find the maximum error for this approximation. 18. Use the third degree Taylor polynomial about 1 to approximate In 1.1 and find the maximum error for this approximation. 19. Use a Taylor polynomial for the function f(x) = Vx about a = 4 to find an approximation to V4.1 that is accurate to within 10-*. 20. Use a Taylor polynomial for the function fix) = Inx about a = e to find an approximation to In 3 that is accurate to within 10-*. 2 . Use a Taylor polynomial to approximate sin 5° to an accuracy of 10-*. 22. Use a Taylor polynomial to approximate cos 42° to an accuracy of 10~*. 23. Suppose P is a polynomial of degree n. Show that the nth degree Maclaurin polynomial about a = 0 is precisely Fe of degree n. Show that the nth degree Taylor 24. Suppose P is a polynomial ly P regardless of the value chosen for a. polynomial about a is precise! 2S. The method for completing the square of a quadratic polynomial can be de- rived by using the result in Exercise 24. Suppose that f(x) = ax? + bx + c. Expand f in a second degree polynomial about an arbitrary point d and then choose d so that the coefficient of (x — d) is zero. Use this technique to complete the square in the quadratic polynomial P(x) = 2x? + 3x 41,26. 27. 28. 29. A Maclaurin polynomial for ., series of a function has Only e Maclaurin series © Tg ven hat the ‘ion is even. Hint: First ie that the derivar! only if the fe an odd function and that the derivative Of an function must must be even.) M: Prove that the M only if the function 1S odd. ' sanction ial for a function fat g j sree Taylor polynomial f ee The nih aes BY Prone ea ‘ ) Eels why this description is accurate. (a : \d the quadratic polynomial that best approximates co (b) . function has as its tangent line the line with = f the ” pe nen = Land has f"(1) = 6. Prove # Werg Ve of wily wa ney £ aclaurin series of a function has only ogg Pow, Sts ig ang Tefery, Ed to & ie re* is used to give the Approximation tion is estimated to be E = 1/6, Find? toe ‘The error in this approxima . for the error in E. b 30. It is important to verify that lim R,(x) = 0 to ensure that the Taylor Serie 5 ne 7 Putnam exerci: for a function actually represents the function. Consider the function e'" ifx #0 JO~ jo ifx =o. The Maclaurin series of this function is identically zero, so the series ep resents f only when x = 0. Show that this statement is true by constructing the Maclaurin series in the following manner. (a) Show that lim e~'"x-" = O for each n. x0 (b) Use the definition of the derivative to find f’(O). (c) Use the definition of the derivative to find f“ (0) for n= 2. (d) Construct the Maclaurin series. 31. Assume that | f(0| = 1 and |,f"G| < 1 for all x on an interval of length at 32. least 2. Show that | f’(x)| < 2 on the interval. (This exercise was problem 4, part I of the twenty-third William Lowell Putnam examination given on December 1, 1962. The examination and its solution can be found in the September 1963 issue of the American Math- ematical Monthly, pages 713-717.) Let C be a real number, and let f be a function such that lim f(x) =c, lim Ff") = 0. Prove that tim f"(x) =0 and lim f"(x) = 0. i i Hl Liki exercise was problem 4, part II of the nineteenth William bois sole examination given on November 22, 1958. The examination ihe: m can be found in the January 1961 issue of the American ‘matical Monthly, pages 22-27 y