09 Wind and Solar Power PDF

Wind Turbine
Generators
© P. Kundur
Wind Turbine Generators
Outline
 Evolution of Wind Power
 Wind Turbine Characteristics
 Types of Wind Turbine Generator

Technologies
 Protection Systems
 Reactive Power Compensation and Voltage

Control Requirements
 Impact on Power System Dynamic

Performance
 Mitigation of Stability Problems
© P. Kundur WTG - 1
Wind Power
 One of the fastest growing primary sources

of energy for generating electricity in
recent years
 In 2006, more than 20% of total energy

supply in Denmark was provided by wind
power
 In Europe, the total installed capacity of

wind generation in 2011 was about 70 GW,
and is expected to double by 2015
 Global Wind Energy Council predicts that

global wind power capacity could reach
2,300 GW by 2030, providing nearly 20% of
of the world’s electricity needs
 Introduces new challenges for ensuring

stable and reliable operation of power
systems
Wind Power (Contd.)
 The building block to harvest wind power

is a wind turbine generating (WTG) unit
 A WTG includes four main components:
 Wind turbine
 Electric machine (generator)
 Power-electronic converter/conditioner
 WTG-level controller
 A Wind Power Plant (WPP) is a cluster of

WTG units that are collectively interfaced
to the host power system at a point of
interconnection (POI)
 WTG units are designed to collectively
interact with the host power system so as
to ensure satisfactory performance
Wind Turbines
 Most modern wind turbines have three

blades
 Based on the axis of rotation, wind turbines

can be classified into two basic types:
 Horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT)
 Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT)
 The HAWT are more efficient in extracting

the kinetic energy from the wind, and are
widely used
 There are two types of HAWT rotor

configurations: upwind and downwind
 The dominant WTG technology, particularly

for applications in WPPs, is based on the
horizontal axis, three bladed, upwind turbine
structure
Wind Turbine Generators (WTGs)
 Wind turbine components:

 wind turbine runs at low speed (0.5 Hz)
 mechanical drive train includes a gear box
 converts low speed of turbine to high
speed of generator
 Mechanical speed regulation:
 blade pitch angle control
 each blade rotated about longitudinal axis
 variable speed
 stall control
 no pitch actuators required
 fixed speed
 Types of generators
 induction generator
 synchronous generator
 doubly fed induction generator
 WTG ratings range from 25 kW to 10 MW
Typical WTG “Power Curve”
 Figure below shows typical output versus wind

speed characteristics of wind turbines:
Percentage Rated Output
cut-in rated
cut-out
wind speed (m/s)
 The cut-in, rated and cut-out speeds shown are

typical for utility-scale WTGs
 Generally, WTGs are designed to work at
maximum aerodynamic efficiency between cut-
in and rated wind speed
 For wind speeds higher than rated and lower
than cut-out:
 blade pitching or blade stalling is used to
maintain loading within the equipment’s rating
 WTGs shut down for wind speeds higher than

cut-out speed to avoid excessive mechanical
stress
Types of Wind Turbine Generator
Technologies
Four major types of WTG Technologies used:

1. Squirrel Cage Induction Generators driven by
fixed-speed, stall-regulated wind turbines
2. Induction Generators with variable external

rotor resistance driven by a variable-speed,
pitch regulated wind turbines
3. Doubly-Fed Induction Generators driven by

variable-speed, pitch regulated wind turbines
4. Synchronous or Induction Generators with full

converter interface (back-to-back frequency
converter), driven by variable-speed, pitch
regulated wind turbines
Type 1: Fixed Speed WTG
 Generator is an induction generator, which

is directly interfaced with the host utility
network
 Rotor speed is determined by grid frequency,
regardless of wind speed
 Induction generator equipped with an

electronic starter and shunt capacitor
banks for reactive power compensation
 Main features: simplicity, robustness of

components, and relatively low cost
 Drawbacks: excessive mechanical stress;

significant fluctuations in output quantities
 Widely used in the early 1990s;

not used for large-size WTGs and WPPs
Type 2: Limited Variable-Speed WTG
 Generator is a wound-rotor induction

generator
 equipped with a rotor resistor adjustment
device, and
 Enables slip control, typically up to 10%
 Shunt capacitor system for reactive power

compensation
 As compared to Type 1 WTG, slightly

aerodynamically more efficient and has
modestly lower drive-train mechanical
stress
 Not the preferred choice for present-day

large-size WTGs and WPPs
Type 3: Variable-Speed WTG with
DFIG
 WTG is composed of a pitch-controlled

wind turbine, a gear box, and a doubly- fed
induction generator (DFIG)
 Stator of the DFIG is directly connected to

the host power system
 Three-phase rotor circuit is connected to

the grid through a back- to-back voltage-
sourced converter system
 Applies voltage across the rotor that is
regulated by two rotor current controllers
 Typically provides variable speed

operation from about –40% to +30% of the
nominal power system frequency
 Aerodynamically more efficient;

lower drive-train mechanical stress; and
lower power/voltage fluctuations
Cont’d
Doubly Fed Induction Generator
(DFIG)
 Wound rotor induction generator with

slip rings
 Rotor is fed from a three-phase variable

frequency source, thus allowing variable
speed operation
 reduction of mechanical stress; higher
overall efficiency, reduced acoustical noise
 The variable frequency supply to rotor is

attained through the use of two voltage-
source converters linked via a capacitor
 Since the converter system handles only

the rotor quantities, its rating is
significantly smaller (about 30%) than the
generator rating
Note: A more appropriate designation for

this type of generator is: Doubly Fed
Asynchronous Generator (DFAG)
Doubly Fed Induction Generator
DFIG
Grid
Grid side DC Link Rotor side

converter converter
Reactor
Cbc Chopper
Control of Rotor-Side Converter
 The converters handle ac quantities:

 rotor-side converter carries slip frequency
current
 stator-side converter carries grid frequency
current
 Hence, they are controlled using vector-

control techniques:
 based on the concept of a rotating reference
frame and projecting currents on such a
reference
 such projections referred to as d- and q-axis
components
 With a suitable choice of reference frame,

AC quantities appear as DC quantities in
the steady state
cont’d
Control of Rotor-Side Converter
cont'd
 In flux-based rotating frames:
 changes in the d-axis component of current will

lead to reactive power changes
 changes in the q-axis component will vary

active power
 This allows independent control of active

and reactive power of the stator
 Implemented through rotor-side converter
control
 An important aspect of the DFAG concept !
 Since rotor flux tracks the stator flux, air

gap torque provides no damping of shaft
oscillations
 additional modulating signal has to be added
Protection System
 Rotor current protection:

 Limits current in the rotor side converter
 If current rises above set value, a crowbar is
activated
 short-circuits the rotor winding at the slip
rings with a static switch
 Generator operates as a squirrel cage
induction motor
 In newer units, an “active crowbar” is used
 Typically, the case when the voltage at the
terminals of the generator decreases rapidly,
for example during a fault in the grid
Protection System cont'd
 Rotor speed protection:
 disconnects WTG from the grid if speed

of rotor is higher or lower than set levels
for a predefined time
 Over/under voltage protection:
 disconnects WTG from the grid if voltage

is above or below set values for a
predefined time
Performance of DFAG
 DFAGs have the ability to hold electrical

torque constant
 rapid fluctuations in mechanical power can be
temporarily stored as kinetic energy
 improves power quality!
 Performance for large disturbances

requires thorough analysis
 may lead to separation of the unit
 process may not be readily apparent from
simplified dynamic simulations
Performance of DFAG cont'd
 Large disturbances lead to large initial fault

currents, both at the stator and rotor
 will flow through rotor-side converter; voltage
source converters are less tolerant of high
currents
 further, additional energy goes into charging

the dc bus capacitor and dc bus voltage rises
rapidly
 crowbar may be activated
 may lead to tripping of the unit
 Need for a careful assessment and proper

design of controls to improve capability to
ride through faults
Examples of Fault Ride-Through
Capability
 Temporary reduction of active power:

 Active Power is ramped down for a predefined time
and then ramped up again to pre-fault value
 This stabilizes wind turbine during the fault and
reduces the current in the rotor converter
 Disadvantage: rotor can speed up causing
overspeed protection to trip turbine
 handled by the pitch controller
 Temporary reduction of active power with

reactive power boosting:
 Increases terminal voltage
 Improves system stability
Type 4: Variable-Speed WTG with
Front-End Converter System
 Generator is either a synchronous machine

or an induction machine
 Generator is connected to the utility

network through a power electronic
converter system
 Most often composed of two cascaded AC-DC
converters (back to back voltage source
converters)
 Enables full rage of variable speed operation

for the unit, and reactive power control at the
point of connection
 A pitch controlled wind turbine is

mechanically interfaced to the generator,
either through a gearbox (conventional
scheme) or directly (direct-drive scheme)
 For conventional structure, the generator

is a high speed (e.g. 4-pole) machine, and
thus requires a gearbox
Type 4 WTG (contd.)
 By contrast in the direct-drive structure,

the generator is a low speed (e.g., an 84-
pole) machine
 Generator is directly interfaced to the

turbine rotor shaft; no need for a
gearbox
 Generator can be a wound rotor

(conventional) synchronous/induction
machine or a permanent magnet
synchronous machine (PMSG)
 Direct-drive units with permanent magnet

synchronous generators are increasingly
being used for large-size WTGs
 Type 4 WTGs, like Type 3 WTGs, are

aerodynamically more efficient; have lower
drive-train mechanical stress and lower
power/voltage fluctuations
Relative merits of Type 3 WTG and
Type 4 WTG with PMSG
 Most modern WTGs are of:

- Type 3 configuration, or
- Type 4 configuration with PMSG
 With a Type 3 unit, the the rating of power-

electronic converter system associated
with the rotor circuit is about 30% of the
generator rating
 Less expensive and have lower losses than
the converter system for Type 4 units
 Main drawbacks of Type 3 configuration

are its requirement for slip ring and the
need for special rotor current protection
system
 Type 4 WTG with PMSG has the following

features: smaller and lighter, does not
require slip-rings, better control
capabilities and is structurally simpler
Wind Power Plants
 Utility-scale wind power plants consist of

several tens to hundreds of WTGs
 Each unit with a pad-mounted transformer
 Connected to transmission network through

a medium-voltage collector network
 A power transformer used to interface with

the transmission grid
 Depending on the application and type of

WTG, shunt reactive power compensation
may be added at one or more of the
following locations:
 WTG terminals
 Collector system
 Substation interfacing with the

Transmission grid
Impact of the Variability of Wind
Power Plant Output
 Wind power plant output varies with wind

resource
 Cannot be dispatched like conventional power
plants
 System operators cannot control the rate of
power decreases, i.e., ramp down due to falling
wind speeds
 For ramping up, some manufacturers provide
the option of controlling rate of power increase
 As wind power capacity within a control

area increases, the variability of wind
power can have a significant impact on:
 the efficiency of unit commitment process, and
 the reserve requirements to meet reliability
performance standards
Reactive Power Compensation and
Voltage Control Requirements
 In areas with large amounts of wind

generation, wind variability can have a
significant impact on voltage profiles
 may require switched capacitor banks and
shunt reactors, and transformer tap changer
control
 Some wind power plants have the ability to

control/regulate voltage at or near the point
of interconnection to transmission grid
 accomplished by installing separate devices
such as SVCs and STATCOMS,
 alternatively, external controller may be added

for adjusting the power factor of each
individual WTG until target voltage is achieved
Impact of Wind Power Plants on
Power System Dynamic Performance
 The dynamics of individual WTGs and the

entire wind farms could have a significant
impact on the stability of the bulk power
system
 “Rotor angle stability” is not an issue with
wind power plants because most WTGs are
asynchronous units
 No equivalent concept of “rotor angle” or
synchronizing and damping torques for such
generators
 Some studies have revealed that bulk

power system “transient rotor-angle
stability” is improved if wind power plants,
as compared to conventional power plants
with synchronous generators, are added at
the same location
 with WTGs, a smooth and non-oscillatory
power delivery is re-established following a
disturbance
cont’d
Impact on System Dynamic
Performance cont’d
 Wind power plants, with Type 1, 2 and 3

WTGs, could have a significant impact on
“voltage stability” following a network fault
 Induction generators absorb higher reactive
power when voltage is low
Even DFIGs may “crow-bar” during a fault, and
act as an induction generator
 Increased reactive power consumption can
lead to voltage instability if the transmission
grid is weak
 Voltage stability related to characteristics of
WTGs, as opposed to load characteristics
 A short-term phenomenon
 Adequate and fast control of reactive power
and voltage required
 Overall solution requires coordinated control
of wind farms, including use of external
compensators such as SVCs and STATCOMS
cont’d
Impact on System Dynamic
Performance cont’d
 Type 3 and Type 4 WTGs do not contribute

to system inertia
 May contribute to “frequency instability”,
particularly in smaller power systems with
high penetration of wind generation
 On smaller isolated power systems, “rate of
change of frequency” may present challenges
 Special controls, such as “inertia control”,
often used to address some aspects of the
associated problems
 Detailed simulation studies using

appropriate WTG models essential for
satisfactory integration of large WPPs into
power grids
 includes EMTPDC/ PSCAD simulations, in
addition to system stability studies
Modeling of Wind Power Plants
 Wind field model describing wind speed

 Wind turbine model
 Model for internal grid of wind power plant
 For system studies aggregated
representation is sufficient
 a single WTG model to represent the farm or
a sub-group of WTGs
 Induction/synchronous generator
represented by a third order or fourth order
model
 d and q axis rotor circuits and acceleration
of rotor
 Models for controls and protections
Generic WTG Models
 Detailed models for WTGs developed by

manufacturers and consultants for grid
integration studies and design of WPPs are
considered as:
 Proprietary user-defined models
 Further, maintenance of numerous vendor-

specific models is unmanageable for
regional reliability organizations and grid
operators
 Efforts are underway for developing

“Generic” WTG models suitable for
“system impact” studies and planning and
reliability evaluation studies
 Joint report prepared by IEEE WG on Dynamic
Performance of Wind Power Generation and
WECC WG is attached
Grid Codes
 In the past, wind power plants were

allowed to trip off for nearby transmission
faults and system disturbances
 Early WTGs were not integrated in a way

that supported bulk power system
operation
 Due to the significant increase in wind power
capacity, this is no longer appropriate
 Transmission operators and reliability

coordinators have begun to capture
performance requirements for wind power
plants in Grid Codes
 The Grid Codes are new and as such

evolving
Cont’d
Grid Codes (Cont’d.)
 Grid codes typically include performance

requirements relating to:
 Active power and frequency control;
Ramp rate control
 Reactive power and voltage control
 Fault tolerance/ ride-through capability
 Requirements can vary depending on the

host power system characteristics, depth
of wind power penetration
 With the anticipated significant growth in

wind power in North America and Europe,
NERC and ENTSO-E have organized work
plans to support the power industry’s
integration of variable generation
 Wind power plants will be required to perform
like conventional power plants from a terminal
point of view
Capabilities of Modern WTGs
Modern WTGs can contribute to the reliability

and efficiency of grid operation by offering
the following capabilities:
 Voltage and VAr control/regulation
 Real power control, ramping, and

curtailment
 Primary frequency regulation
 Inertia response: special control
 Short-circuit duty control: inverter-based

WTGs have built-in capability to limit the
fault current
Today’s wind plants are capable of providing

full range of support services that
conventional thermal and hydro plants
provide, often with greater speed and
accuracy
Advanced Wind Generation Technologies
Providing Ancillary Services
 Frequency Control
 Primary frequency control through turbine

controls; similar to to conventional power
plants but faster and allows deeper runback of
power
 To provide “up” governor response by

increasing power output over a sustained
period, power must be limited a priori by
“spilling” wind; function most likely valuable
under conditions of high wind and light power
system load; could be enabled by ancillary
services agreement so as to enable depending
on overall grid operating conditions
 The “down” governor response has no

opportunity cost; can be provided very
effectively, markedly superior to that available
from conventional power plants
Contd.
(Contd.)
 Power Scheduling and Ramp-Rate Control
 Limiting power output of wind plants may be

necessary for two major reasons: grid
congestion and reserve limitations
(constraints on other resources providing
various reserve ancillary services)
 Synthetic Inertial Control
 A fast frequency response with a power

electronic converter following a large event
leading to significant level of under generation
 Temporarily increases the power output of

wind turbine in the range of about 10% of rated
power
 Below rated wind speed, stored kinetic energy

from the turbine-generator rotors is
temporarily donated to the grid but is
recovered later
 At higher wind speeds, pitch control can be

used to temporarily exceed the steady-state
rating of the turbine
(Contd.)
 Wind Plant Control of Reactive Power
 Wind plant controller achieve improved grid

voltage control by using inherent capabilities of
WTGs by controlling the VAR output of each unit
so as to maintain voltage at the point of
interconnection (POI)
 A coordinated control system that senses power

system conditions and directs the individual
WTGs within a plant to adjust their local control
objectives to meet system needs
 This hierarchical control scheme contributes to

improvement system stability and power quality
 Reactive Power Control Without Wind
 Line-side inverter of Type 4 WTG is self-

commutating
 When the turbine is not running and no active

power is available, the converter can continue to
supply or absorb reactive power
 Similar to performance of STATCOM
Solar Power
Solar Power
 A tremendous increase in the number of

installed solar energy systems worldwide
in recent years
 Cumulative global installed solar PV capacity
exceeded 100 GW in 2013
 Solar Photovoltaic device directly converts

solar energy into electricity using a PV cell
 Utility-Scale PV-DG (1-10 MW)
 Connected to conventional feeders or

distribution substations via dedicated feeders
 Medium-Scale PV-DG (10-1000 kW)
 Larger plants have installations similar to

utility-size PV-DG plants
 Small-Scale PV-DG (1-10 kW)
 Single phase units connected to secondary LV

lines
Utility-Scale PV Plant
 Typical topology includes:
 Three-phase inverter for converting dc to ac
 Grid interface through an ac contactor,

isolation transformer, and harmonic filter
 The electrical performance of PV systems

is dominated by the inverter characteristics
 Most modern inverters have the capability

for independently controlling active and
reactive power output
 Inverter protection normally includes

definite-time over- and under-voltage, and
frequency elements
 Inverters also have “anti-islanding”

protective functions
PV Plant Grid Integration Issues
 Voltage regulation and power quality are

important issues to be addressed
 PV variability due to movements of sun

(slow) and cloud (fast) may cause frequent
and large fluctuations in voltages
 Need to evaluate tap switching duty of voltage
regulators, tap-changing transformers, and
switched capacitors
 With high-penetration of PV plants
 Coordination of protective relaying to account

for the increase in distribution network short-
circuit current levels needs to be addressed
 Technical issues related to impact on

power system performance similar to those
of Type 4 WTGS
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)
 Concentrate energy from the sun rays to

heat a receiver to high temperature
 Heat is transformed first into mechanical

energy by steam turbine and then to
electricity using synchronous generator
 Impact on power system dynamic

performance similar to that of conventional
power plants
 CSP is a re-emerging market:
 Roughly 350 MW of commercial Plants were

built in California, USA in the 1980s
 Actively started again in 2006: in the United

States with 1 GW; and in Spain with 500 MW
installed
 More under construction and development
Wind and Solar Power
 Have grown rapidly worldwide in the last

decade
 Have become mainstays of a clean, reliable

and affordable grid
 Growth is due to:
 Significantly improved technology: power

electronics; advanced controls
 Vast advancements in effectively addressing

grid integration issues
 Lower costs
 Provide ancillary services that were not

envisioned a few years ago
Good Reference
IEEE Power & Energy Magazine, Vol. 13,

November/December 2015

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Wind Turbine

 Evolution of Wind Power

 Wind Turbine Characteristics

 Types of Wind Turbine Generator

 Reactive Power Compensation and Voltage

 Impact on Power System Dynamic

 Mitigation of Stability Problems

 One of the fastest growing primary sources

 In 2006, more than 20% of total energy

 In Europe, the total installed capacity of

 Global Wind Energy Council predicts that

 Introduces new challenges for ensuring

 The building block to harvest wind power

 A WTG includes four main components:

 Electric machine (generator)

 A Wind Power Plant (WPP) is a cluster of

 Most modern wind turbines have three

 Based on the axis of rotation, wind turbines

 Vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT)

 The HAWT are more efficient in extracting

 There are two types of HAWT rotor

 The dominant WTG technology, particularly

 Wind turbine components:

 Figure below shows typical output versus wind

wind speed (m/s)

 The cut-in, rated and cut-out speeds shown are

 WTGs shut down for wind speeds higher than

Four major types of WTG Technologies used:

2. Induction Generators with variable external

3. Doubly-Fed Induction Generators driven by

4. Synchronous or Induction Generators with full

 Generator is an induction generator, which

 Induction generator equipped with an

 Main features: simplicity, robustness of

 Drawbacks: excessive mechanical stress;

 Widely used in the early 1990s;

 Generator is a wound-rotor induction

 Enables slip control, typically up to 10%

 Shunt capacitor system for reactive power

 As compared to Type 1 WTG, slightly

 Not the preferred choice for present-day

 WTG is composed of a pitch-controlled

 Stator of the DFIG is directly connected to

 Three-phase rotor circuit is connected to

 Typically provides variable speed

 Aerodynamically more efficient;

 Wound rotor induction generator with

 Rotor is fed from a three-phase variable

 The variable frequency supply to rotor is

 Since the converter system handles only

Note: A more appropriate designation for

Grid side DC Link Rotor side

 The converters handle ac quantities:

 Hence, they are controlled using vector-

 With a suitable choice of reference frame,

 In flux-based rotating frames:

 changes in the d-axis component of current will

 changes in the q-axis component will vary

 This allows independent control of active

 An important aspect of the DFAG concept !

 Since rotor flux tracks the stator flux, air

 Rotor current protection:

 Rotor speed protection: