‘peasy ot Saar wa the “clin ‘rong oa tack Independence and War Central America’s fist act of diane toward Spanish rule tok place in ‘San Salvador in 1811. Hoping to help San Salvador achieve indepen dence, a Salvadoran priest named Jos! Malas Delgado led a revolutionary ‘movement, aided by his nephe, Manuel José Arce. Ther actions were inspired by those of a Mexican pres named Miguel Hidalgo, who was, active in Mexico's ight for independence from Spain Delgado’ attempted revolt fed, He ed again—and fled aguin— in 1814, But his actions caused peopl throughout Central America to thin and tlk even more about the possibilty of independence. When the Central American colonies Sn achieved independence ‘hom Spsin they did so almost by accent. On the morning of September 15, 182, the ls captain general of Guatemala (wich stil included al of Central Ameria excet Panama met wi his advisors inthe goverment ‘alice in Guatemala City. A rumor son le around the ct tht indepen- ence was being discussed atthe palace. Crowds gathered in the plaza use the palace windows. People cheered, sang. and roared their spproval. Church bells rang out. Everyone believed that the captain gen ral wa about to declare independence Ando he di. slvencd by his counselors—and perhaps by the oar ‘ofthe eager cromds outside his windows—the captain general wrote out a  oe os Are wos 55 5 ‘pres the Ute Proceso Conta Amero eto gmt an eat i Cts Ane fo sarong Coa, aso Sun > Ne tl oe at hme ann Nexo © 1 ea iste in ger ing 1 tun over 0 28 ecu gen tere int Cn ean ne sre arn emie of Ger Aust Rte San a oot aw ene te athe Sao Soe, ete! npn fom Guta ay eter Cen Vee Flt se em. Aithoudh they rested for several moths, hey nally sueumbed in 1622 In 1823, bide’s shoreived pa the Sahadorane, isola, unable or unviing to return to Mexico, Mexican empire colased othe oy of asked <> the leaders ofthe Cental American provinces to meetin Guatemala City to plan a new goverment. Although he hoped thatthe provinces woukd adchim to he their er, he was disappointed, The leaders met, agreed to form a federation, and ordered the general to depart. ‘The asembly of leaders, mostly upper-class Creoles, declared them selves a completly independent republic, the United Povines of Central ‘America. Guatemals, Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Ric, and San Salvador (eluding Sonsonate) were the member sates, They drew up a consti ‘on that called fr a federal capital and president in Guatemala City, anda ‘resident in each ofthe five states: it also abolished slavery but limited voting to landowning members ofthe upper class. In elecons held in 1825, these olers lected Manuel José Arce president of the federation Arce began asa member of the Libera pay, which supported prog ress, change, and a redistribution of weth and power. The opposing ‘Conservatives favored tation and wanted wealth and power to remain in ‘the hands of the chur and afew old famiies. Confit between the Lib cals and Consenatves began when Arce was ceced and continued to ‘woubl the federation fr many yeas Soon after his election, Arce began to disagree with his pat. He joined the Conservatives and tried to rule as a dictatr. In response, the Liberals of San Salvador led a rebelion against the federation, Avs troops besieged the city in late 1829. Thus began period of poiticl seesaving from Liberal to Conservative contol and ba ain In 1830, Liberal Honduran army led by Pranesco Morazindefeatod the federal forces. Moran arrived in San Salvador a8 victorious ier tor, then marched on Guatemala City, Arce reigned hs ofce. He and other leading Conservatives were fore to eave the federation, ad Mora: in was elected its president. Ace tried tice to invade and reclaim Cental America, once from Mexico and oncefrom Cuba. His efforts were unsoccessl. But Morazi's presidency faced other problems: economic and socal unrest n San Saha dor, a Conserve uprising in Honduras, and opposition from the——————— “huch, In 1838, Moraadn moved the federations capita to San Sabador fran attempt to weaken Consens infenc. But in 1897, the Conse vanes managed to make the uneducated peasants and Indians believe atthe Liberal goverment was responsible for an epidemic ofthe deadly “fesave cholera. Bneouraged by the Conservatives, the peasants and Ind se nevelted agaist the federation. A charismatic meio (a person of arse Buropean and Intian descent) named Rafe Carrera ed the reo rnd overthrew the tate goverment of Guatemala ‘The ret was the bennng ofthe end forthe United Provinces of centr Ameen. By April 189, al the slates except San Salvador ha Strawn fom the federation, Sill a Lberl stronghold, Sen Sahador “Wve othe hope of ertng the federation, But Crea sent Consens fhe fores into San Sabador fom Cutemaa, drove the Liberals into ares and infced a dstrous defeat onthe remnants of Moran's iby cerl army in 1840, “That same yar, San Salado’ leaders announced the formation of the epubi of El Saiador, combining the proves of San Salvadoran ‘Sopoate Carrera appined hs frend Francisco Maesin the fist resh ere of Bt Sabador, but in 1845 the Liberals resined conto ater 2 ‘Bodh ci war. The Conservatives, however, ued asin rom 1852 to 1860 ‘1 Sahador’s bestknown Liberal president, General Gerardo Barros severne from 1850 to 1863, He fude te nation’s frst wert a aovrcachant marine service. He also incorporated freedom of region nto thew and promesed aula and industal projets that helped ma tongs the county. In recogrition of his importance to his nation’s deve ‘pment, El Saiador has ofialy names Barrios a national hero, “Mter Baris’ rt, progressive presidency, Bl Sabador alternated pewenn Liberal and Conserve rue throughout the rest of the 19th ervey Guatemala ed twice to estore the od federation, In the send ferpt, Guemaan president Justo Rufino Baris led his salle fe ar ery int El Salvador. The Sabadorans killed Baris atthe Bate of ‘Chalchuapa on April 2, 1885, and the Ur es ‘ca was finally and completely laid to rest, eit wa a a i successor, From 1913 to 1927, in fact, the offic “ : eee et aor be, Cat od eng Me nd Afonso Quifiénex Molina. ae eee tm got tte ny Cota sett hes Cetin pps aes eas ee eee cannes ‘Since he i100, clo es eo lang rp in Stedeae . In 1978, te amy killed 30 protestors who were demanding land and financial si for the poor. Aer ths massacre, El Sakadors arhsn, Oscar Amo Romero, became the government's harshest etic. Fry the cathedral in San Sahador, he claimed thatthe protest movement would continve as long as the goverment used violence aginst is peopl In January 1978, the InterAmerican Commission on Human Rights announced that General Romero's reine was torturing and murdering Dolial prisoners. Violence ffom both goverment and antgovemmest forces continued to grow. In October, 3 military junta took over fom ‘Romero an promised reforms in the area of human rights and economic benefits, Duarte retumed from ele a a cilian member ofthe junta, ‘The new goverment began to cay out some ofits promised reforms I took over many lange fms belonging to wealthy Sahadorans, rng some of the famiand to peasants and keeping the rst as govern ‘ment property. But the onpostion movement was not sts wth these small measures. In aditon the police and army continued ther teorist actives, Public violence exploded when Archbishop Romero was shot and killed atthe altar ofthe cathedral in March 1980; government opp ‘nents chimed thatthe army had assasiated him. The station worsened when soldiers atthe national palace fred on angry moumersat Romero's fineral. The funeral became a masaere and El Saar plunged int ‘open chil war. By the end ofthe year, the death toll on both sides had reached 22,000. On December 3, 1980, soldiers shot four American women who were sympathetic to the guerrilla movement; thee of them were nuns ‘That same month, gurrla and antgovernment groups joine to for the Frente Demécrata Revluconaro (FDR) and pledged to bring democracy and social reform to El Salvador. In an attempt to end the war, the junta snpointed the polar Duarte president on December 13. He declared that his regime would write new constitution and thatthe country would hol lectins in 1982nS El Salvador continued. ‘More than 13,000 ot, ee _ Dar nt Ss, orn at Cnt yar [FDR would gain control ofthe country — aa ee a eo Te a ‘iiaaad o ‘guerrillas, “econ A ace be yi yl atl Soa electrical generators in rural areas. eco tan 2 fre Gat et ese Se ta Sor bot Mah pt wn es Tet ow son avr, ely Satadorons paris va rns of ore gators chs sae repro <5 paris were the PDC, the PCN, andthe Alianza Republican Nacionasta (called Arena, avery conservative, progoverament group. Major Roberto «Aubusson, the leader of Arena, was elected president ofthe asemby. Because his POC party had not won a majority ofthe seas inthe assem ‘by, Duarte resigned from the presidency. He was replaced by a "emp ‘ary president” hanker Alvaro Magana Bor, who governed unl the May 1984 elections, ln 1984, Duarte defeated d'Aubuison to become present. med stely after the election, Salvadoran cout ried and comictedthe national ‘ardsmen accused of murdering the American women; the offcer accused of ordering the killings was fee on a kl technicality. The ‘goverment ordered several other officers believed to hae been ievaied in trot activity and asasinatonsexpeled from the amy or assigned to diplomatic pot in other countries. Following Duarte’ election, several meetings took place between the {foverament and rebels, but no agreements could be reched to stop the fighting. n the 1989 elections, which the rebels boycotted, Arena won & majority in the Legislative Assembly, and is new leader, Alfredo Cristian, became president. The guerilla then launched a major offensive, which forced the government to participate in new peace talks. 11980, peace tals finally began under the supervision ofthe United Nations. In September of the following year, Cristian and the rebel lead- tes agreed on the details ofa peace settlement, which vas formalized in a treaty in January 1982. In the 1994 elections, Armando Calderén Sol of Arena easily defeated former guerrilla leader Rubén Zamora to become the new president of El Sabador. _ @ ‘Modem History I Sahacor’s history entered a new phase when Pio Romero Bossi, president from 1927 to 1831, decided not to choose his successor. He anted to ive the Salvadoran a chance to elect thee neat leader. Unfor. tunately, Bossue's democratic infentios failed, Many candidates ran for foffce, but none of them won a majority of the woes, The lalaire ramed Arturo Araujo, one of the candidates, president. Aer ony a fe twee in offce, however, Arayjo was deposed when his vce president ‘General Maximiiano Hernindex Mating, seized power wit the help of theamy. Martinge ruled as a mitary dictator and ruthless suppressed all “opposition, The year after he took power was the bloodiest Latin America had yet seen—his soldiers killed more than 30,000 people (4 percent of the county's population) who objected to histranicl rule. Desi such Wolence, he was elected president in 1995 and 1999, Martinéz showed tite regard for human rights ofr the welfare ofthe poor, but he did ‘make some important improvements in El Sahador’s material prosperity: he art a new eninage system, funded a national bank, completed the Inter American Highway acros the country, and continued to develop the coffee export busines (which was controled by the slate), But when be ‘red to eatend his term of office in 1944, a revolution fd by students ad ‘small democratic segment ofthe amy forced him t resin ‘ering the next 25 years, Salvador saw a rapid succession of ee: tions and coups (itary takeovers of governmen. Most ofthe county's Jeadews wore ary offices who seized power, then set out sence rics of thei ue. Ther ars regimes created unrest, which eventually ge {nto a vcus circle of suppression and revo. Each new leader in tur, vias ovethrown—sometmes ater only daysby another. In the mean tine, wealthy landowners profited from the sale of coffee and cotton, but the standard of ving forthe poor inhabitants ofboth the countnside and the ete emined very ow. “This period also sa the formation of many new politcal parties in BL ‘Salvador, as student and work fall Sutin wrest dese es sito Teme or paso ea es icacién Democratica (PRUD), which controlled the cour 7 ‘oto eases cor Ma ed ®t Eli oe a te 90 he Dn Gitano PO, whch eee sae sy votes pe opposed gnemmet poy, and the Pare Roan Ree (PAR), which had Communist leanings. Some of the coe ‘important to Salvadoran politics today, ees The Soccer War Seon ee 85 yl eet en em nH Sr ub nes so el sie ay aS = ign Hors Ah po Hendon roc begat Sacre rane ‘a tnt ae fn, ed Be mrs 90 dor. This incident kicked | a ae nega tnd tanns helt erates aide a War A ater Urea erat eer sts ha ec ‘the hostility between the two countries. c {nthe 12805 Presto st Neplen ‘Duarte td to satan the mands fh ing laments | eters \