ME 324

HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

By
Prof. P. Muthukumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Guwahati

Date: 09-01-2017
Limitations Of Classical Thermodynamics

 Deals with the amount of heat transfer between two equilibrium states, without concerning about the nature of
the process and the rate of heat transfer.
 From thermodynamic point of view,
Q = ΔE + W
where ΔE is the internal energy, Q the rate of heat transfer and W is the amount of work done.
 There is no information about the rate and nature of heat flow.

Heat Transfer
 Heat is a form of energy in transit always and occurs by virtue of temperature difference.
 Heat flows from high temperature region to lower temperature one.
Modes Of Heat Transfer
 Heat transfer mostly takes place due to conduction and radiation, whereas the third mode of heat transfer i.e.
Convection occurs due to conduction and bulk motion of fluid.
 Both conduction and radiation occur due to temperature difference.
 Conduction takes place due to movement of free electrons in metals and due to lattice vibrations in non-metals.
Whereas, in liquids and gases, conduction occurs mostly due to molecular collisions.
 Convection consists of two mechanisms.
 Very close to the boundary of the heat source / solid surface, there is diffusion or random molecular motion.
 In the adjacent layers, there is bulk fluid motion, which leads to transfer of heat to the upper layers.
 𝜕𝑇
Here | 𝜕𝑦 |𝑦=0 is the temperature gradient at the

interface and depends on the macroscopic and

microscopic motion of particles.

 The fluid layer in contact with the wall will be having zero velocity due to shear stress acting between the layer and the
surface , whereas it will be having a temperature equal to surface temperature.
 As we move away from the wall, there is a gradient in velocity and temperature, where the fluid will reach maximum
velocity away from the wall.
 Since the fluid is having zero velocity at the sloid – liquid interface, so there will be conduction.
 Fourier Law of heat conduction applied to :

T
qc  k fluid
y y 0
 Convection can be further classified into three ways:
• Natural Convection – It occurs due to buoyancy force, occurring due to the difference in the density of the hotter
and the colder fluid.
• Forced Convection – This occurs due to external source of force on the system i.e. flow from a pump or blower etc.
• Mixed Convection – In this case, convection occurs under the influence of both the external force and natural
convection.

Newton’s Law of Cooling :

qc hc AT
Here hc is the local heat transfer coefficient and is not constant throughout the surface.

qc hc A(Tw  T  )

T ∞ is the free stream temperature in case of external flows.

Evaluation of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
It can be determined by the following means :
1. Dimensionless Analysis:
• Very Simple and to apply.
• Results are incomplete.
• Not useful without experimental data.
2. Exact Solution of boundary layer equations:
• Simultaneous solutions of the equation describing the fluid motion and transfer of energy in a moving fluid.
• Difficult to apply for complex boundaries.
3. Integral Method (Approximate Analysis):
• Avoids detailed mathematical description of the flow.
• Simple equation is used to describe velocity and temperature field.
4. Through analogy between heat and mass transfer:
• Mainly used for turbulent heat transfer process.
Dimensionless Analysis
• It is extremely difficult to measure the heat transfer for all practical cases. So, in some of the cases we
need some correlations for determining h as a function of some flow characteristics like geometry or
other properties.
• Dimensional analysis is a tool used to correlate various physical phenomenon in terms of some
expressions with constants, the values of which have to be found experimentally.
• Dimensionless analysis is an approach to combine several variables into dimensionless groups,
• Convective heat transfer coefficients are generally calculated from empirical equations obtained by
correlating the experimental data with the aid of dimensionless analysis.
• Proper selection of prime variables is very crucial for this method.
Steps involved in the dimensionless analysis using Buckingham  Theorem:
• List the total parameters (independent and dependent) ( A)
• Find out the number of fundamental dimensions required to express all the parameters (B)
• Find number of  terms required (A-B)
• Choose prime variables
• In each  term, one prime variable (which should not present in the other) and all the non-prime variable
should be presented.
• Present all the variables (both prime and non-prime) in terms of basic fundamental dimensions ( L, M, T, t)
• All non-prime variable should be expressed with power indices and summation of all power indices should
be equal to zero. since,  term is dimensionless.
• In the similar way, all  term are grouped in the form of dimensionless number.
Application of Dimensional analysis to Convection:
Convective heat transfer can be expressed as a function of following…

h  f  k ,  , C p ,  , l ,U ,  g (Tw  T f ) 
k  thermal conductivity of fluid (W / m / K )
  Dynamic vis cos ity ( Pa.s )
C p  Specific heat capacity ( J / kg / K )
  Density of fluid (kg / m3 )
U  Velocity of fluid relative to body (m / s )
 g (Tw  T f )  Buoyancy force : force due to gravity (m / s 2 )
  Coefficient of bulk exp ansion(1/ K )
f  h, k ,  , C p ,  , l ,U ,  g (Tw  T f )   0
There are eight variables and four fundamental dimensions are involved in the problem like
(M, L, t, T).

∴ Number of 𝜋 terms = 8 – 4 = 4

f  1 ,  2 ,  3 ,  4   0
i.e.,

Each 𝜋 term will contain one prime variable which does not occur in other 𝜋 terms and
four non-prime variables which occur in all 𝜋 terms with different power indices.

The prime variables are selected based on the importance and its physical relevance on the
dependent variable
The prime variable are

h → is a variable which needs to correlated with other independent variables

U → which decides the nature of the flow

𝛽𝑔 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑓 → which decides the effect of buoyancy (natural convection)

Cp = thermal capacity of the fluid which influences the relation between velocity and temperature . Therefore, the
proposed  term are 1  [ h k a  b  c l d ]
1 1 1 1

 2  [U k a  b  c l d ]
2 2 2 2

 3  [  g (Tw  Tf ) k a  b  c l d ] 3 3 3 3

 4  [C p k a  b  c l d ]
4 4 4 4

The values of the indices ai, bi, ci and di are determined by using the fact that 𝜋′s are
dimensionless. (where i = 1,2,3,4)
Theory says that dimensionless variables are formed by the products of powers of certain original
dimensional variables   M L1 t 1
kg  m   M L3
s2 V  Vi
Energy   T 1
Vi (T  Ti )
Q time N m
h   2
A Tw  T f  Area  Temperature difference m  t  T
1 L
 g (Tw  T f )   2  T  L t 2
T t
lL
M L
 t 2   L Cp 
Q
 L2 t 2 T 1
 2  M t 3 T 1 m(T2  T1 )
L  t T
Q
k  A  M L t 3 T 1
T
n
U  L t 1
1   M t T 3 1
 M L t T3

1 a1
M L t 
1 1 b1
M L 
3 c1
L
d1

 M 1 a1 b1  c1 La1 b1 3c1  d1 t 33a1 b1 T 1 a1

Since 𝜋1 is dimensionless

 1  M 0 L0 T 0 t 0
 1  a1  b1  c1  0
a1  b1  3c1  d1  0
 3  3a1  b1  0
 1  a1  0
 a1   1; b1  0; c1  0 and d1  1

hl
 1   h k   l    Nu
1 0 0 1

k
Repeat the same analysis

Gives, U l U l
2    Re  Re ynolds number
 
3
2 l
 g (T  T )l 3

 3   g (Tw  T f )    2  w f
 Gr  Grashoff number
  2

C p
4   Pr  Pr andtl number
k
 f  Nu , Re, Gr , Pr   0

Correlating equations for a particular geometry is obtained by experimental heat transfer

results in terms of these non dimensional numbers.
If buoyancy force is neglected (for forced convection), final Eq. becomes

Nu  f  Re, Pr 

If the velocity of the flow is negligible, for free convection effects,

Nu  f  Gr , P r 

The above analysis, the dependence of ‘h’ on the fluid properties 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝑘, 𝐶𝑝 and
𝛽 are considered. These properties are evaluated at average temperature between the
surface and free stream i.e., (Tw+Tf)/2.0
In case of pipe flow (short pipe)
D
Average heat transfer coefficient will depend on both l and D l
∴ 𝑁𝑈𝐷 = f [ ReD, PrD, (l/D) ]

In case of high speed flow, the compressibility of the gas also influence the heat transfer coefficient,
h

In this situation , Nu = f [ Re, Pr, M ]

𝑢 Where u = local flow velocity
Here, M = Mach number = a = Velocity of sound
𝑎

Gravitational acceleration ‘g’ also has an effect on ‘h’

Inertial force 𝑔𝑙
∴ Fr = = = Froude number
gravitational force 𝑢2

Nu = f (Re, Pr, Fr)

 Steady flow Energy Equation:

The energy equation for steady flow


Rate at which Kinetic   Rate at which   Rate at which   Net Rate at which   Net Rate at which 
 Rate at which Enthalpy          heat is transferred    work is done 
  + Energy leaves the  enthalpy enters  kinetic energy enters     
 leaves the Control volume    
 
 
    on control volume 
 Control volume 
  the control volume   the control volume   to the CV   

= +
Total enthalpy, I = specific enthalpy + specific kinetic energy

u 2  v2
I  CpT 
2
The difference between the rate at which the sum of enthalpy and kinetic energy leaves and
enters the control volume in x direction

     
 m I  ( m I ) dx    m I   (m I )dx  (2)
 x  out  in x

Mass is given by m    u  dy where dz is unity

∴ Eqn. (2) becomes

 
   u  dy  I  dx     u  I  dx dy  (3)
x x
The same quantity in y- direction,

 
   v  dx  I  dy     v  I  dx dy  (4)
y y

The right hand side of the Eqn. (1) becomes

   u 2  v2     u 2  v2 
  u  c pT    dxdy    v  c pT    dxdy  (5)
x   2  y   2 


The net heat transfer in x- direction, Qx Qx   Qx  dx
x

 
Qx   Qx  dx  Qx    Qx  dx
x x
 T    T     T 
Qx  kdy    kdy   dx  k dxdy  (6)
x ; x   x    
x  x 

Simplify in y- direction
  T 
 k  dxdy  (7)
y  x 

Total heat transfer into the control volume

  2T  2T 
k 2  2  dxdy  (8)
 x y 

The work done on the control volume is mainly due to the existence of normal pressure
gradient and due to shear stress on the surfaces. Simplifying these terms one can get
 2 u u v 2 v   u u v v 
 u   uv   uv   v  dxdy    x   yx  y   xy  dxdy  (9)
 x y x y   x y y x 
Substitute all values in equation (1) and divided by dxdy

    u 2  v2       u 2  v2  
  u  c pT         v  c pT     
x    2    y    2   
  2T  2T   2 u u v 2 v   u u v v 
k 2  2 
   u   uv   uv   v 
  x       
 x y        
yx y xy
  x y x y   x y y x 

Here Cp and 𝜌 are constant and flow is assumed to be incompressible

   u 2  v2      u 2  v2  
 uT   u     vT    v   
x x  2c p  y y   2c p  

k   2T  2T  1  2 u u v v  1  u u v v 
 2  2  u  uv  uv  v 2    x   yx  y   xy   (A)
cp  x y  cp  x y x y   c p  x y y x 

LHS of Eqn. (A)

T u u  u v   u 2  v 2  u v T v  u v   u 2  v 2  v
u T  2u
 x  2v     T  v   2u y  2v y    2c  y 
x x 2c p x   2c p  x y y 2c p    p 
 u v   u  v   u v   T T  u 2 u uv v v 2 v uv u
2 2
T       
  u  v    
 x x   2c p   x x   x y  c p x c p x u y c p y
0 0
LHS
T T 1  2 u v v u  Third term will get cancel out from
u v  u  uv  v 2  uv  both side…
x y c p  x x y y 

Eqn. (A) becomes

T T k   2T  2T  1  u u v v 
u v   2  2  
 x       
x y  c p  x y  cp  x y y x 
yx y xy

T T k   2T  2T  
u v   2  2  
x y  c p  x y   c p

1  u u v v 
where,         
  x x yx y y
y
xy
y 

The normal stress and shear stress components are given by following equations
 u  u 2  u v   u
 x    p  2      
x  x 3  x y   x
u  u  2  u  2  u   v 
2 2

  p  2            
x  x  3  x  3  x   y 
v  v 2  u v   v
 y    p  2      
y  y 3  x y   y
2 2
v  v  2  v  2  u   v 
  p  2            
y  y  3  y  3  x   y 
v  u v   v  v   v u 
2

 xy                
x  y x   x   x   x y 
2   u v  
u  u v   u   u   v u  the term  p     vanishes for incompressible flow
 yx                   x y  
y  y x   y   y   x y 

 u  2  v  2   u v  2 2  u v 2
  2               
 x   y    y x  3  x y 
for three dimensional flow 0
 u  2  v  2  w  2   u v  2  w v  2  u w  2
  2                     
 x   y   z    y x   y z   z x 
For cylindrical coordinates
T T w  T  k   2T 1   T  1 T 
2
u v      r  2 2
 
z r r     c p  z 2
r r  r  r    c p

 u  2  v  2  1 w v  2   1 u w  2  v u  2  1  v w w   2
  2                    
 z   r   r  r    r  z   z r   r   r r  

𝜑 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

If the velocity components are negligible

 2T  2T  2T
 2  2 0
x 2
y z