Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
In addition, the authors would like to thank Tony Schoen, Deo Prasad, Peter
Toggweiler, Henrik Sorensen, and all the other international experts from the
International Energy Agency’s PV Power Systems Program, TASK VII, for their
support and contributions.
Thanks also are due to staff members of Kiss + Cathcart and NREL for their
assistance in preparing this report. In particular, we would like to acknowledge
the contributions of Petia Morozov and Kimbro Frutiger of Kiss + Cathcart, and
Riley McManus, student intern, Paula Pitchford, and Susan Sczepanski of NREL.
On the cover: Architect’s rendering of the HEW Customer Center in Hamburg, Germany,
showing how a new skin of photovoltaic panels is to be draped over its facade and forecourt
(architects: Kiss + Carthcart, New York, and Sommer & Partner, Berlin).
The standard element of a BIPV system is the PV module. Individual solar cells are interconnected
and encapsulated on various materials to form a module. Modules are strung together in an
electrical series with cables and wires to form a PV array. Direct or diffuse light (usually sunlight)
shining on the solar cells induces the photovoltaic effect, generating unregulated DC electric
power. This DC power can be used, stored in a battery system, or fed into an inverter that
transforms and synchronizes the power into AC electricity. The electricity can be used in the
building or exported to a utility company through a grid interconnection.
A wide variety of BIPV systems are available in today's markets. Most of them can be grouped
into two main categories: facade systems and roofing systems. Facade systems include curtain
wall products, spandrel panels, and glazings. Roofing systems include tiles, shingles, standing
seam products, and skylights. This sourcebook illustrates how PV modules can be designed as
aesthetically integrated building components (such as awnings) and as entire structures (such as
bus shelters). BIPV is sometimes the optimal method of installing renewable energy systems in
urban, built-up areas where undeveloped land is both scarce and expensive.
The fundamental first step in any BIPV application is to maximize energy efficiency within the
building’s energy demand or load. This way, the entire energy system can be optimized.
Holistically designed BIPV systems will reduce a building’s energy demand from the electric
utility grid while generating electricity on site and performing as the weathering skin of the
building. Roof and wall systems can provide R-value to diminish undesired thermal transference.
Windows, skylights, and facade shelves can be designed to increase daylighting opportunities
in interior spaces. PV awnings can be designed to reduce unwanted glare and heat gain. This
integrated approach, which brings together energy conservation, energy efficiency, building
envelope design, and PV technology and placement, maximizes energy savings and makes the
most of opportunities to use BIPV systems.
It is noteworthy that half the BIPV systems described in this book are on Federal buildings. This is
not surprising, however, when we consider these factors: (1) the U.S. government, with more than
half a million facilities, is the largest energy consumer in the world, and (2) the U.S. Department
of Energy (DOE) has been directed to lead Federal agencies in an aggressive effort to meet the
government’s energy-efficiency goals. DOE does this by helping Federal energy managers identify
and purchase the best energy-saving products available, by working to increase the number and
quality of energy projects, and by facilitating effective project partnerships among agencies,
utilities, the private sector, and the states.
To help agencies reach their energy-reduction goals, FEMP’s SAVEnergy Audit Program identifies
cost-effective energy efficiency, renewable energy, and water conservation measures that can be
obtained either through Federal agency appropriations or alternative financing. FEMP's national,
technology-specific performance contracts help implement cutting-edge solar and other renewable
energy technologies. In addition, FEMP trains facility managers and showcases cost-effective
applications. FEMP staff also identify Federal market opportunities and work with procurement
organizations to help them aggregate purchases, reduce costs, and expand markets.
All these activities ultimately benefit the nation by reducing building energy costs, saving taxpayers
money, and leveraging program funding. FEMP’s activities also serve to expand the marketplace
for new energy-efficiency and renewable energy technologies, reduce pollution, promote
environmentally sound building design and operation, and set a good example for state and local
governments and the private sector.
This sourcebook presents several design briefs that illustrate how BIPV products can be integrated
successfully into a number of structures. It also contains some basic information about BIPV and
related product development in the United States, descriptions of some of the major software design
tools, an overview of international activities related to BIPV, and a bibliography of pertinent
literature.
The primary intent of this sourcebook is to provide architects and designers with useful information
on BIPV systems in the enclosed design briefs. Each brief provides specific technical data about the
BIPV system used, including the system’s size, weight, and efficiency as well as number of inverters
required for it. This is followed by photographs and drawings of the systems along with general
system descriptions, special design considerations, and mounting attachment details.
As more and more architects and designers gain experience in integrating photovoltaic systems
into the built environment, this relatively new technology will begin to blend almost invisibly into
the nation’s urban and rural landscapes. This will happen as BIPV continues to demonstrate a
commercially preferable, environmentally benign, aesthetically pleasing way of generating
electricity for commercial, institutional, and many other kinds of buildings.
Owner:
Broadway and 42nd Street, New York City, New York
Durst Corporation
Date Completed: September 1999
Architect & Designer: Fox & Fowle Architects, building architects;
Kiss + Cathcart Architects, PV system designers
PV Structural Engineers: FTL/Happold
Electrical Engineers: Engineers NY
Tradesmen Required: PV glazing done by shop labor at curtain wall fabricator
Applicable Building Codes: New York City Building Code
Applicable Electric Codes: New York City Electrical Code and National Electric Code
PV Product: Custom-sized BIPV glass laminate
Size: 14 kWp
Projected System Electrical Output: 13,800 kWh/yr
Gross PV Surface Area: 3,095 ft2
PV Weight: 13.5 lb/ft2
PV Cell Type: Amorphous silicon
PV Module Efficiency: 6%
PV Module Manufacturer: Energy Photovotaics, Inc.
Inverter Number and Size: Three inverters; two 6 kW (Omnion Corp.), one 4 kW (Trace Engineering)
Inverter Manufacturers: Omnion Corp. and Trace Engineering
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected
Close-up view of curtain wall illustrates that BIPV panels (dark panels) can be mounted
in exactly the same way as conventional glazing (lighter panels).
PV System Configuration
The PV modules replace conventional
spandrel glass in the south and east
facades. There are four different sizes
of modules, and they correspond to the
spandrel sizes established earlier in the
design process.
PV Module Mounting and
Attachment Details
The PV modules are attached to the build-
ing structure in exactly the same way that
standard glass is attached. The glass
units are attached with structural silicone
adhesive around the back edge to an alu-
minum frame. An additional silicone bead
is inserted between the edges of adjacent
panels as a water seal.
There is a separate electrical system for
each facade. Each system consists of two
subsystems, feeding two 6-kW inverters
and one 4-kW inverter. The larger invert-
ers serve the two large-sized PV modules,
which have electrical characteristics that
are different from those of the smaller
ones. Using multiple inverters enables the
system to perform more efficiently. The
inverters are located in a single electrical
closet at the core of the building. The AC
output of the inverters is transformed
from 120 V to 480 V before being fed into
the main electrical riser.
This schematic drawing shows how the PV modules were attached above the conventional skylight glazing.
(UBC), building code issues were an ethylene-vinyl acetate coating, a connected in series to feed the sine-wave
addressed. Special arrangements were translucent Tedlar-coated polyester back- inverter, which is configured to 48 V and
made with the local electrical utility to sheet, and two sealed and potted junction rated at 4,000 W capacity.
ensure that the grid-tied system would boxes with a double pole plug connector.
meet safety requirements. Finally, The PV cells are laminated in a 6-cell x 6- PV Module Mounting and
installing the system required coordina- cell matrix. The minimum spacing Attachment Details
tion between the panel supplier, electri- between cells is 1.25 cm (1/2 in.). The Structural upgrades were made to accom-
cian, glass installer, and Presidio facilities dimension of each module is 81 cm x modate the additional weight of the PV
personnel. 94 cm (32 in. x 37 in). The gross area of system. These added about $900 to the
the entire structure is 18.8 m2 (200 ft2). total cost, for structural components.
PV System Configuration
The power produced by the system is con-
The BIPV glazing system consists of 24 PV
verted to high-quality AC electricity and
glass laminates. The spacing of the cells
supplements power supplied to the build-
within the modules allows approximately
ing by the utility. The system is rated at
17% of the sunlight into the entryway,
1.25 kW. Each of the 24 PV modules gen-
reducing the need for electric lights. The
erates 8.5 V of DC power at approximately
modules consist of 6-mm Solarphire
5.5 amps. Six modules per sub-array are
glass, 36 polycrystalline silicon PV cells,
Owner:
Dulles Center, Washington, DC
Smithsonian Institution
Date Completed: Construction begun in 2000, scheduled for completion in 2003
Architect & Designer: HOK, Building Architects; Kiss + Cathcart Architects, PV System Designers;
Satish Shah, Speigel, Zamel, & Shah, Inc.
Structural Engineers: N/A
Electrical Engineers: N/A
Tradesmen Required: Building tradesmen
Applicable Building Codes: BOCA, Metropolitan Washington Airport Authority
Applicable Electric Codes: National Electric Code
PV Product: Various BIPV systems
Size: To be determined for BIPV curtain wall, facades, and canopy
Projected System Electrical Output: 15.12 kWh for the canopy system
Gross PV Surface Area: 223 m2 for the canopy system
PV Weight: 5 lb/ft2 for the canopy system
PV Cell Type: Polycrystalline cells, amorphous silicon film for various systems
PV Efficiency: Systems will range from 5% to 12%
PV Module Manufacturer: Energy Photovoltaics, Inc., for the
canopy system
Inverter Number and Size: To be determined
Inverter Manufacturer & Model: To be determined
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected
PV Canopy
PV Curtain Wall
Project Overview:
Axonometric
02527218m
Description Kiss + Cathcart, Architects, are under core mission is to protect the nation’s
contract to the National Renewable collection of aviation and space-flight-
The National Air & Space Museum
Energy Laboratory as architectural- related artifacts. It will also house the
(NASM) of the Smithsonian Institution is
photovoltaic consultants to the preservation and restoration workshops
one of the most-visited museums in the
Smithsonian Institution. Working with of the Air and Space Museum.
world. However, its current building on
the Smithsonian and HOK Architects,
the Mall in Washington, D.C., can accom- The center’s design includes a large,
Kiss + Cathcart is identifying suitable
modate only a fraction of NASM’s collec- hangar-style main exhibition space that
areas for BIPV, selecting appropriate
tion of historical air- and spacecraft. will allow visitors to view the collections
technologies, and designing the BIPV
Therefore, a much larger expansion facil- from two mezzanines as well as from
systems. For DOE FEMP, a partner in the
ity is planned for a site adjacent to Dulles ground level. It is estimated that more
project, a primary goal is to demonstrate
Airport. Since the new facility will exhibit than 3 million people will visit the center
the widest possible range of BIPV applica-
technologies derived from space explo- annually to view aircraft, spacecraft, and
tions and technologies in one building.
ration, the use of solar energy, which has related objects of historic significance,
Construction should begin in 2000.
powered satellites and space stations many of which are too large to display at
since the 1950s, is especially fitting for The NASM Dulles Center will serve as the National Air and Space Museum in
this new building. an exhibit and education facility. Its Washington, D.C. The facility will set new
Canopy:
Structural Details
standards for collections management met: (1) reduce the amount of energy visitors attention on the PV. Labels,
and the display of large, 20th-century required from the power grid, especially exhibit material, and museum tour staff
functional objects. during peak times, and thus conserve could further highlight the PV arrays and
energy and save operational funds, and call attention to the energy savings being
Smithsonian staff are evaluating the inte-
(2) demonstrate the use of PV in a highly realized. PV would also be used to power
gration of a number of grid-connected
visible context in a much-visited Federal some exhibit material exclusively. The
BIPV systems into the building. The NASM
facility. related exhibit materials could highlight
Dulles Center will be a very large structure
the many connections between PV and
(740,000 ft2), with commensurate energy Five BIPV subsystems could be demon-
the field of space exploration and utiliza-
and water requirements. As part of its strated at the new NASM facility, including
tion, as well as today’s construction and
educational mission, the museum plans the south wall and skylight of the entry
building industry.
to exhibit hardware that points to the "fuselage," the roof of the restoration
historic use of photovoltaic (PV) power hangar and space shuttle hangar, the
systems in space; the museum would facade of the observation tower, and
also like to demonstrate how that tech- awning canopies. The entry fuselage
nology can be used today in terrestrial figure clerestory windows will be a highly
applications such as BIPV. To this end, visible way of demonstrating PV to visi-
the Smithsonian is evaluating the highly tors approaching the center. Once in the
visible application of BIPV at this facility entryway, visitors would also see the
to meet a portion of its energy require- patterns of shadow and light the fritted
ments. In this way, two objectives will be glass creates on the floor, thus focusing
14 design briefs: National Air and Space Museum
Fuselage detail illustrates patterns of polycrystalline glazing.
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected
02527213m
This illustration is a view of the building from the southwest corner; the dark areas
represent the photovoltaic standing-seam metal roofing material.
PIX08475
of Hawaii School of Architecture designed
and administered the project and a local
utility, HECO, funded it. Additional con-
struction cost support was supplied by
FEMP, NREL, and the Navy. The utility and
the Navy determined the site, and the
installation date was scheduled for the
third quarter of 1998 (Figure 1). HECO was
designated to be the client for the first
year, after which the Navy will assume
ownership of the system.
The tropical location (21° North) and the
site’s microclimate make it an ideal loca-
tion for PV installations. Project planners
expected an annual daily average of
5.4 peak sun hours and 20 to 25 in.
(57 cm) of annual rainfall. This project, at
this particular site, will also be testing the
limits of the products used in the installa-
tion. Monitoring the performance of the
The array in mid-installation is shaded only by cloud cover.
PIX08477
Workers install short lapped roofing pans at BIPV Additional electrical junction boxes were required over
module sections. potted terminals and raceways at the ridge, before the
ridge cap was installed.
PIX08478
PIX08480
Junction box at ridge, viewed from below Junction box at ridge, viewed from above
PIX08451
PIX08450
Staff in the Department of Energy’s
Western Area Power Administration
Sierra Nevada Region (SNR) have had two
main goals for SNR's photovoltaic (PV)
program: (1) promote PV systems as a
renewable energy resource, and (2) do
so in a cost-effective manner. In support
of these goals, SNR has incorporated
PV panels into the roofs of buildings in
Elverta and Folsom, California. The build-
ing-integrated systems will repay invest-
ments in them by extending roof lives,
reducing maintenance costs, generating
electric power, and reducing the build-
ings' cooling requirements.
In Phase I, a 40-kW building-integrated
photovoltaic system was installed at
SNR's Elverta Maintenance Facility. The
Sacramento Municipal Utility District A PowerLight rooftop PV system is installed on Western’s facility in
(SMUD) funded the PowerLight Corp. Elverta, California.
PowerGuard® system, while Western
contributed funds equivalent to the cost
of replacing the facility roof. Funding was
PIX08452
also provided by the Utility Photovoltaic
Group (UPVG) through TEAM-UP, with
support from the U.S. Department of
Energy.
With a power capacity of 40 kW peak DC
and an annual energy output of more
than 70,000 kWh/year, the PV systems
have significant environmental benefits.
Phase I prevents the emission of
2,300 tons of carbon dioxide, 8.7 tons
of nitrogen oxides and 16.4 tons of sulfur
dioxides; these emissions would be the
result if fossil fuels were burned to
generate the same amount of electricity.
Because this system is designed to have
a life expectancy of 20 years, the cumula- A view of the rooftop of the Elverta facility after the PV system installation.
tive benefits for the environment are
many.
for greater annual energy production. In PV System Configuration
Special Design Considerations addition to generating clean renewable
A 40-kW PowerGuard building-integrated
PowerGuard PV tiles were used to reroof energy, the lightweight system provides
PV system was installed at the Elverta
the building, saving on the cost of con- R10 roof insulation for improved building
Maintenance Facility in Western's Sierra
ventional roofing material. The patented comfort and membrane protection for
Nevada Region to function as both a roof
PowerGuard tiles incorporate high-effi- extended roof life. Installation took only
and solar electric photovoltaic (PV) power
ciency polycrystalline silicon cells from 7 days to complete once the building's
plant. Phase I modules were installed in
Solarex. Site conditions were favorable old roof was replaced with a new single-
parallel strings containing 56 modules per
for this sytem: 38° latitude; a dry, sunny ply membrane roof.
string (7 series, 8 parallel).
climate throughout most of the year; and
no shading. The system features horizon-
tal tiles and tiles with an 8° southerly tilt
The temperature curves show how the PV-integrated roof compares with various roofs without solar electric
systems. Roof-integrated PV with integral insulation reduces a building’s heat load as much as 23°C. The
measurements were derived from sensors placed in representative roof specimens.
PIX08453
PV Module Mounting and
Attachment Details
The panels are designed to interlock
using a tongue-and-groove assembly.
Panels with 3/8-in. concrete topping,
instead of PV modules, are set among
the PV panels to allow working access
throughout the roof. Along the edges
of the PV array, a steel ribbon links the
modules together, in order to connect
everything structurally.
Description Special Design Considerations produce 43 watts each. The APS modules
were installed in 22 parallel strings with
This 38-kW BIPV system supplements the The flush roof design provides excellent
12 modules in series per string. The APS
Phase I system. Both systems completely insulation as well as electricity, as shown
modules produce 22 watts each.
cover the Elverta roof and are the largest in the graph comparing roof temperature
PV application of its kind in the United data. PV Module Mounting and
States. Phase II is totally funded and Attachment Details
owned by Western. The PV systems utilize PV System Configuration
thin-film amorphous silicon technology. The Solarex modules were installed in Same as those for Phase I.
The DC output from the PV modules is 254 parallel strings, with three Solarex
converted to 240 V AC by means of a modules in series per string. The modules
custom-built 32-kW Trace inverter, and
then stepped up to 480 V, three-phase
AC by a 45-kVA transformer for direct Solar Electric
Roofing Panel
connection to the building's service Membrane
panel. Besides replacing grid power, the Styrofoam®
Powerlight system protects the roof Insulation
membrane, which extends its life. The roof
system also provides R10 insulation to
reduce cooling and heating loads, thereby
decreasing energy consumption.
The illustration shows how the layers in the roofs provide above-average
insulation as well as a good base for the PowerGuard PV system.
Owner:
Fairfield, California
BP Solar
Date Completed: 1993
Architect & Designer: Kiss Cathcart Anders, Architects
Structural Engineers: Ove Arup & Partners
Electrical Engineers: Ove Arup & Partners
Tradesmen Required: Glaziers, electricians
Applicable Building Codes: BOCA and California Title 24
Applicable Electric Codes: National Electric Code
PV Product: Glass laminates as curtain wall spandrel, skylight, and awning
Size: 9.5 kWp
Projected System Electrical Output: 7.9 kW
Gross PV Surface Area: 1,975 ft2
PV Weight: 3 lb/ft2
PV Cell Type: Amorphous silicon
PV Efficiency: 5%
PV Module Manufacturer: APS
Inverter Number and Size: 6 kW
Inverter Manufacturer: Omnion Corporation
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected
Views looking north (top) and south show how BIPV is integrated into both the facade and the
canopy that runs the length of the building.
PIX08446
PIX08449
PIX08448
used with vertical and sloped
glazing.
Description
Completed in 1993, this 69,000-ft2 manu-
facturing facility houses a new generation
of production lines tailored to thin-film
PV technology. The building also incorpo-
rates into its design several applications
of thin-film solar modules that are proto-
types of BIPV products.
The heart of the project is a 22.5-ft-high
BIPV glass cube containing the factory’s
control center and visitor facilities. This
cube is perched on the second floor, and
half of it is outside of the manufacturing
building, emphasizing its status as an
independent element and a prototype
This office interior view demonstrates the quality of light transmitted
by the approximately 5% translucent BIPV panel skylight.
Parapet beyond
Tapered insulation
4
A37 Metal deck
C
Steel beam
2'-6"
Aluminum curtain wall
C
REFER TO MECHANICAL DWGS FOR
PV glass Parapet beyond
ALL MECHANICAL LOCATIONS
Flashing Built-up roofing, min. slope 1/4" per 1'-0" to drain
5'-0"
5 Elevator bulkhead beyond Wood frame roof - See structural dwgs
Plywd panels A37
Vision glass, tempered type D typ.
Glu-lam beam
C
2'-6"
5'-0"
2'-6"
Vision glass,
C
tempered glass, type B,
6
typ. A16
8'-4 1/4"
5'-0"
C
6 Braced frame beyond glass
A37
1'-9"
Aluminum frame
5'-0"
Steel stair beyond
Vision glass
2'-7"
Expanded metal panel
C
3
GWB
2 Steel guardrail
A37 A37 7 Oriented strand board
A39 Plastic coated wire
Integral duct
PV awning
Steel column
Concrete walk
12'-4 3/4"
Wainscot
Concrete slab
C Purlins
Frame
Bracing rods
Light fixture
above slab
2743.2
above slab
Awning Section
1
1/2" = 1'0"
Purlin below
381 152.4
152.4 381 1066.8 381
1,2 eq. eq.
Axonometric
A40 3505.2 1828.8 6
Awning Plan NTS 02527206m
3 Typ. braced bay (see A06-A07 for locations) Typ. awning bay (see A06-A07 for locations) East end bay (West end opposite hand)
1/2" = 1'0"
31
REFER TO SHT. A/20 FOR LOCATIONS OF
WALL OPENINGS AT TILT-UP PANELS REFER TO MECHANICAL DWGS FOR
ALL MECHANICAL LOCATIONS
8 7
PV skylight
T.O.Cube
Metal deck
Steel beam
PV glass
+27'-8" Flashing
T.O.Conc. tilt-up wall
+25'-0"-26'-8"
T.O.Frame varies
22'-9 1/2"
8'-4 1/4"
8
A37
Steel guardrail
+15'-0"
T.O.Mezz.
2'-7"
9
A37
12'-4 3/4"
12'-4 3/4"
+0'-0"
T.O.Slab
02527208m
Section looking south through cube
1
Scale: 1/4"=1'-0"
Owner:
Yosemite National Park, California
U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service
Date Completed: Scheduled for system completion in 2001
Architect & Designer: Kiss + Cathcart, Architects
Structural Engineers: Ove Arup & Partners, Structural Engineers
Electrical Engineers: None; design overview provided by inverter manufacturer
Tradesmen Required: Standard Contractor/Carpenter and Electrician
Applicable Building Codes: National Park Service, self-regulating
Applicable Electrical Codes: National Park Service, self-regulating
PV Product: Amorphous silicon glass panels
Size: 560 Wp per transit shelter
Projected System Electrical Output: 1.15 MWh/yr
Gross PV Surface Area: 112 ft2
PV Weight: 3.375 lb/ft2
PV Cell Type: Amorphous silicon
PV Efficiency: 6%
PV Module Manufacturer: Energy Photovoltaics, Inc.
Inverter Numbers and Size: 1 kW
Inverter Manufacturer: Advanced Energy Systems
Interconnection: Optional—Grid-Connected or Stand-Alone
02527238m
The transit shelter prototype makes use of both high-tech and low-tech materials, combining
locally forested lumber with BIPV panels.
Owner:
Burlington, Massachusetts
Sun Microsystems
Date Completed: October 1998
Architect & Designer: HOK Architects and ASE Americas, Inc.
Structural Engineers: Whiting-Turner Contracting Co.
Electrical Engineers: Enertech Engineering
Tradesman Required: Glaziers, electricians
Applicable Building Codes: Uniform Building Code
Applicable Electrical Codes: National Electric Code Section 620
PV Product: BIPV curtain wall
Size: 2.5 kWp
Projected System Electrical Output: 2.5 kWp
Gross PV Surface Area: 827 ft2
PV Weight: 8.3 lb/ft2
PV Cell Type: Polycrystalline silicon manufactured by ASE Americas, Inc.
PV Efficiency: 12.8%
PV Module Manufacturer: Pilkington Solar International
Inverter Number and Size: One 2.5 kWp inverter
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: Omnion Power Corp.
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected
North-facing view of
the clock tower at Sun
Microsystems facility.
Pilkington Solar International’s East view of the clock tower shows BIPV installation.
project leader, John Goldsmith, is
shown with the integrated curtain
wall on the south and west faces
of the clock tower.
Owner:
Albany, New York
State University of New York, Albany
Date Completed: Summer 1996
Architect: Cannon Architects
Electrical Engineer: Cannon Architects
Solar Consultant: Solar Design Associates, Inc.
Tradesmen Required: Beacon Sales Corporation, roofing contractors
Applicable building codes: New York State Building Code and ANSI Z97.1
Applicable electrical codes: National Electric Code
PV product: Kawneer 1600 PowerWall™
Size: 15 kWp
Project System Electrical Output: 19,710 kWh / yr.
Gross PV Surface Area: 1,500 ft2
PV Weight: 1.93 lb / ft2
PV Cell Type: Polycrystalline silicon
PV Cell Efficiency: 12%
PV Module Manufacturer: Solarex
Inverter Number and Size: AES 250 watt
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: Advanced Energy Systems Micro Inverter
Interconnection: Utility-Grid Connected
Gordon Schenck/PIX084
Looking southeast
at the Center for
Environmental
Sciences and
Technology
Management
PV System Configuration
There are two different system configura-
tions in the CESTM solar system. The
sunshade portion consists of 59 pairs of
framed Solarex MSX 120 modules. Each
pair is connected to its own accessible AC
micro-inverter. The inverters are installed
inside the building for ease of service. The
landscape portion consists of 18 pairs of
Solarex MSX 240 modules. An AC micro-
inverter is attached to the underside of
each pair.
Owner:
Seba Dalkai, Navajo Reservation, Arizona
Seba Dalkai Boarding School
Scheduled Completion Date: Fall 1999
Architect: Kiss + Cathcart, Architects
Electrical Engineer: Energy Photovoltaics, Inc.
Solar Consultant: Kiss + Cathcart, Architects
Tradesmen Required: Electricians, laborers
Applicable Building Codes: Standard building codes
Applicable Electrical Codes: National Electric Code
PV Product: Energy Photovoltaics EPV-40 modules
Size: 4.0 kWp
Projected System Electrical Output: 5,818 kWh/yr
Gross PV Surface Area: 625 ft2
PV Weight: 3.75 lb/ft2
PV Type: Amorphous silicon
PV Efficiency: 6%
PV Module Manufacturer: Energy Photovoltaics, Inc.
Inverter Number and Size: Four 2.5 kW inverters
Inverter Manufacturer: Trace Engineering
Interonnection: Stand-Alone System
02527276m
Each new BIPV structure at the Seba Dalkai School will serve as an open-air classroom
supported by timber columns in a concrete foundation.
02527274m
Owner:
408 Atlantic Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts
U.S. General Services Administration
Date Completed: September 30, 1999
Project Developers: Enron Energy Services and U.S. General Services Administration
Electrical Engineer: PowerLight Co.
Solar Consultant: PowerLight Co.
Tradesmen Required: Electricians and roofers
Applicable Building Codes: Standard building codes
Applicable Electrical Codes: National Electric Code, Boston Electric Interconnection Guidelines, and IEEE
Specifications
PV Product: PowerLight, using ASE Americas, Inc., solar panels
System Size: 37 kW DC, 28 kW AC
Projected System Electrical Output: 50,000 kWh/yr
Gross PV Surface Area: Approx. 3,800 ft2
PV Weight: 4 lb/ft2
PV Cell Type: Amorphous silicon
PV Efficiency: 12%
PV Module Manufacturer: ASE Americas, Inc.
Inverter Number and Size: 1 30 kVa
Inverter Manufacturer: Trace Engineering
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected
PIX08465
PIX08470
PIX08472
PIX08471
Co-funded by the DOE FEMP Renewable Energy Shading from other buildings is not a problem at this
Program, this BIPV application illustrates how the site, which is in urban Boston.
technology can be introduced into complex roof spaces.
Owner:
Herne, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
EMC, Ministry of Interiors of North Rhine-Westphalia, City of Herne
Date Completed: May 1999
Architect & Designer: Jourda et Perraudin Architects, HHS Architects
Structural Engineers: Schleich, Bergermann and Partner
Electrical Engineers: HL-Technik
Tradesmen Required: Glaziers, electricians
PV Product: BIPV roof
Size: 1 MWp
Projected System Electrical Output: 750,000 kWh/yr
Gross PV Surface Area: 10,000 m2
PV Weight: 130 kg per each 3.2 m2 module
PV Cell Type: Polycrystalline and monocrystalline silicon
PV Efficiency: 12.8% to 16%
PV Module Manufacturer: Pilkington Solar International, Cologne
Inverter Number and Size: 600, 1.5 kW
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: SMA, Kassel
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected
PIX08454
PIX08456
10,000 square meters, most of the roof
and the southwest facade is covered by
photovoltaics, making this system the
largest building-integrated PV power
plant in the world. It produces approxi-
mately 750,000 kWh of electric power
per year. This is enough to supply more
than 200 private residences. About
200,000 kWh is used directly by the
Academy building, and the remaining
550,000 kWh is fed into the public power
grid in Herne.
PV System Configuration
The Optisol photovoltaic elements were
produced by Pilkington Solar at a site in
Germany. The PV system consists of solar
cells embedded between glass panes.
Daylighting needs were taken into
account in designing the roof- and facade-
integrated system. The PV modules have
areas of 2.5 to 3.2 square meters and an
output of 192 to 416 peak watts each. This This photo shows how the PV panels are angled to capture the sunlight
makes them larger and more powerful shining on the roof.
than most conventional solar modules.
Direct-current electricity is converted to
Mounting and Attachment
230 V alternating current by means of Details
a modular inverter. This is made up of The building-integrated photovoltaic
roughly 600 decentralized string inverters panels are set into aluminum mullions
and allows optimal use of the incident like skylights. The rooftop panels are
solar radiation. positioned at an angle to capture as much
of the incident sunlight as possible.
Architect’s rendering
of the Discovery
Science Center Cube
in Santa Ana,
California
Date Completed:
Napa, California
N/A
Architect & Designer: Solar Design Associates, Inc.
Structural Engineers: Solar Design Associates, Inc.
Electrical Engineers: Solar Design Associates, Inc.
Tradesmen Required: Electricians
Applicable Building Codes: Building Officials Code Administrators International (BOCA)
Applicable Electrical Codes: National Electric Code
PV Product: BP Solarex
Size: 36,000 Wp
Projected System Electrical Output: N/A
Gross PV Surface Area: 3,456 ft2
PV Weight: 3.4 lb/ ft2
PV Cell Type: Polycrystalline
PV Efficiency: 11.1%
PV Module Manufacturer: BP Solarex
Inverter Number and Size: 6
Inverter Manufacturer and Model: Omnion Series 2400, Model 6018
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected
PIX08468
PIX08467
Date Completed:
Ijsselstein Zenderpark, Ijsselstein, The Netherlands
Scheduled for completion in late 2000
Architect & Designer: Han Van Zwieten, Van Straalen Architecten, co-designer; Gregory Kiss, Kiss + Cathcart
Architects, co-designer
Structural Engineers: N/A
Electrical Engineers: N/A
Tradesmen Required: Building tradesmen
Applicable Building Codes: Dutch Building Code
Applicable Electrical Codes: Dutch Electrical Code
PV Product: Standard-size BIPV glass laminate panels
Size: 1.6 kWp per housing unit
Projected System Electrical Output: 1150 kWh/year per housing unit
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected
02527269m
Fourteen planned new row-house units in the Netherlands demonstrate the aesthetic use of
building-integrated photovoltaics: front (above) and back views.
02527270m
M.K.
Description positive responses among many Dutch chimney that actually uses the heated
architects, who perceive them as looking air produced in the sunrooms to draw air
This Dutch-American design collaboration
much more like an architectural material currents through the entire row house,
is intended to develop a new standard in
than polycrystalline panels do. cooling it in warm weather. Cold weather
Europe for moderately priced housing
conditions are addressed simply by
with integrated solar electric systems. The Special Design Considerations providing a suitable layer of insulation
first phase consists of 14 row-house units,
In marked contrast to the United States, between the cladding and the interior
each with its own grid-connected BIPV
The Netherlands favors residential design finish.
array. As part of a highly ordered "new
that is largely modern and rational in
town" development adjacent to the city PV System Configuration
character. The ubiquitous pitched roofs
center of Ijsselstein, these units conform
of North American houses (which provide A 1.6-kW, grid-connected BIPV system is
to strict space and budget guidelines
convenient mounting surfaces for PV part of each row house. Each system will
as well as to advanced standards of PV
arrays) were considered aesthetically be individually metered, and there is no
integration.
undesirable at Ijsselstein. However, at battery storage.
The overall design is a composition of higher latitudes with low sun angles, ver-
brick volumes and two-level, wood- tically mounted BIPV panels can generate PV Module Mounting and
framed sunrooms. The latter are partially power at output levels competitive with Attachment Details
clad in opaque and translucent PV units, those of optimally angled panels. The Standard PV modules are set into a wood
and they are raised and staggered to design takes advantage of this by using framing system, which can be either site-
maximize solar exposure. The sunroom standard-sized units as glazing and built or prefabricated. The opaque units
volumes are wood-paneled on the sides exterior enclosure combined in a simple are set as typical single glazing, using
facing north. wooden frame wall. minimum-profile glazing stops and caulk.
The translucent panels are incorporated
The Netherlands is home to some of the Extensive computer modeling studies
into double-glazed window units. The
most advanced PV systems in the world. were done to ensure that the complex
horizontal members of the wood frame
However, before this project began, little massing of the row houses works to pro-
have an absolute minimum exposed
work had been done on integrating solar vide maximum solar exposure for each
depth to prevent shadowing. The vertical
arrays into the prevailing Dutch architec- unit’s array and minimum shadowing of
members, which are not as likely to inter-
tural idiom of abstract cubic forms. The BIPV surfaces by adjacent units.
fere with solar exposure, have a raised
Ijsselstein row houses demonstrate how
Given that BIPV glass is a major cladding profile.
photovoltaics can be a fully participating
component for the sunroom elements,
element in the design, rather than just
excessive interior heat loss or gain was
an applied system. Amorphous silicon
a significant design consideration. The
modules in particular are generating very
adjacent stair serves as a convection
Owner:
Denver, Colorado
U.S. General Services Administration
Date Completed: Scheduled for completion in 2002
Architect & Designer: Anderson Mason Dale (Architects); Hellmuth, Obata, & Kassabaum, St. Louis
(Designers); Architectural Energy Corporation (Energy Consultants)
System Integration: Altair Energy (PV Consultant)
Structural Engineers: Martin/Martin, Inc.
Electrical Engineers: The RMH Group, Inc.
Tradesman Required: Building tradesmen/glaziers
Applicable Building Codes: Uniform Building Code (1997)
Applicable Electric Codes: National Electric Code (1999)
PV Product: Custom-sized BIPV glass laminate
Size: 15 kWp (roof ); 3.4 kWp (skylight)
Projected System Electrical Output: 20,150 kWh per year (roof ); 4,700 kWh per year (skylight)
Gross PV Surface Area: 172 m2 (roof ); 59 m2 (skylight)
PV Module Weight: 4,661 kg (roof ); 2,749 kg (skylight)
PV Cell Type: Single- or polycrystalline silicon
PV Efficiency: 10% or greater
PV Module Manufacturer: Pilkington Solar
Inverter Number & Size: One 20-kW and one 3.4-kW inverter
Suggested Inverter Manufacturers: Trace Technologies, Trace Engineering, Omnion
Interconnection: Utility-Grid-Connected
02527279m
The U.S. Court House expansion in Denver will be a showcase for sustainable building design.
Insulated
Photovoltaic
Standard Glass
Skylight
Glazing
02527294m
Photovoltaics will be integrated into the top roof louver of the tower and into a skylight above the lobby rotunda.
Description and a special proceedings courtroom. courthouse tower caps the structure
Anderson Mason Dale P.C. is the architect with an open framework and a floating
The United States Courthouse Expansion
of record, and HOK served as the design horizontal roof of photovoltaic panels.
in Denver, Colorado, consists of 17 new
architect.
courtrooms and associated support With technical assistance provided by
spaces for an additional 383,000 ft2 Recalling a traditional town square FEMP, the project’s sustainable design
(35,600 m2). The U.S. General Services courthouse, the two-story pavilion is an consultant, Architectural Energy Corpora-
Administration (GSA) approached the arrangement of two geometric forms tion of Boulder, Colorado, and the design
expansion of this Federal Courthouse in under a large horizontal roof. It is the team developed the building’s overall
downtown Denver as a showcase building frontispiece of the entire composition. sustainable design strategies. The build-
for sustainable design. One of the GSA’s An open peristyle colonnade supports ing achieves a high level of energy effi-
project goals was to "use the latest avail- the roof and transparently encloses the ciency through a combination of
able proven technologies for environmen- entrance lobby and the drum-shaped strategies that seek first to reduce build-
tally sensitive design, construction, and secured lobby. As a series of vertically ing energy loads as low as possible and
operation. It should set a standard and be oriented rectangular planes, the then to satisfy the remaining reduced
a model of sustainable design." Another
goal was to create a building that would
remain usable for its 100-year lifespan. This chart summarizes the BIPV system design:
The design projects an image of respect Component Orientation Effective Size Annual
and reflects the city’s rich architectural Area (m2) (kW) kWh
heritage. The 11-story structure houses
six floors of district courts, two floors of
Roof area Horizontal 173.4 13.9 23,300
magistrate courts, offices for the United Lobby skylight Horizontal 63.6 4.4 7,400
States Marshal, a jury assembly area,
Insulated
Photovoltaic Tower
Glass BIPV
Roof
Louver
Standard
Skylight
Glazing
02527293m
02527292m
These drawings show the position of BIPV modules on the skylight and the tower roof louver.
n-Type
semiconductor Electrical
energy
p-Type
semiconductor
Photovoltaic device 02527264m
02527265m
58 BIPV Basics
PV modules were connected to, or
mounted on, buildings that were usu-
ally in remote areas without access to
an electric power grid. In the 1980s,
PV module add-ons to roofs began
being demonstrated. These PV systems
were usually installed on utility-grid-
connected buildings in areas with cen-
tralized power stations. In the 1990s,
BIPV construction products specially
designed to be integrated into a build-
ing envelope became commercially
available.
BIPV Basics 59
grid-metered connections, fault pro- system orientation and tilt, electrical basis. In comparison to a system's per-
tectors, a power conditioning unit characteristics, and system sizing. formance at latitude angle, annual
(inverter), and an electricity storage performance losses for vertical facade
system (usually batteries), as needed. Solar access — Solar access, the inci- systems can be as high as 30% or more.
dence of solar radiation (insolation) In contrast, annual performance losses
Demonstrations of BIPV systems have that reaches a PV surface at any given for horizontal installations can be as
greatly increased people's awareness time, determines the potential electrical high as 10%, in comparison to those of
of the potential of BIPV products. This output of a BIPV system. Solar systems installed at latitude angle.
is especially true for members of the radiation data for sites in the United
building profession and construction States can be obtained from the Electrical Characteristics — The perti-
trades. At the same time, the PV indus- Department of Energy's National nent electrical characteristics of a PV
try has gained experience in designing, Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). module or array are summarized in the
manufacturing, and installing BIPV The data are available in publications relationship between the current and
systems. The current challenge for the such as the Solar Radiation Data Manual voltage. The amount and intensity of
industry is to penetrate the commercial for Flat-Plate and Concentrating Collectors solar insolation controls the current (I);
construction market. This is being and the Solar Radiation Data Manual for the temperature of the solar cells affects
achieved through new linkages Buildings (call (303) 275-4363 to request the voltage (V) of the PV module or
between PV manufacturers and the copies) or online from the Renewable array. Module I-V curves that sum-
building materials manufacturing Resource Data Center (http://rredc. marise the relationship between the
industry. nrel.gov). Statistical estimations of current and voltage are furnished by
average daily insolation levels for spe- manufacturers. I-V curves provide
The economics and aesthetics of BIPV cific locations are commonly used in information designers need to config-
systems are optimized when PV is the BIPV design process and measured ure systems that can operate as close
integrated into the building during pre- as kilowatt-hours per square meter per to the optimal peak power point as
liminary design stages. In order to be day (kWh/m2/day). possible. The peak power point is mea-
effective, BIPV products should match sured, under standard testing condi-
the dimensions, structural properties, System Orientation and Tilt — To max- tions (STC), as the PV module produces
qualities, and life expectancy of the imize solar access and power output, its maximum amount of power when
materials they displace. Like standard the physical orientation of the BIPV exposed to artificial solar radiation of
construction glass, cladding, and roof- system and the tilt angle of the array 1000 W/m2.
ing materials, they can then easily be should be considered relative to the
integrated into the building envelope. geographical location of the building System Sizing — Choosing a BIPV type
site. As a general rule of thumb, BIPV and sizing a system have three main
Design Issues installations north of the equator per- components: energy loads, architectural
Beyond comfort and aesthetics, BIPV form optimally when oriented south or aesthetic considerations, and eco-
design considerations encompass both and tilted at an angle 15 degrees higher nomic factors. To determine the desired
environmental and structural factors. than the site latitude. Conversely, BIPV power rating of a BIPV system for a
Environmental factors include a struc- installations south of the equator per- building, the electrical requirements of
ture's solar access as well as average form best when oriented north and the building should first be evaluated.
seasonal outdoor temperatures at the tilted at an angle 15 degrees lower than The optimum power rating of the sys-
site, local weather conditions, shading the site latitude. The orientation and tem can be calculated and sized, based
and shadowing from nearby structures tilt may vary from this formula when on the portion of the building's electric-
and trees, and the site's latitude, which a BIPV system's particular seasonal ity that will be supplied by the BIPV
influences the optimum BIPV system performance must be optimized. For system. For example, an autonomous or
orientation and tilt. Structural factors example, a system might be designed off-grid building may require a large
include a building's energy require- to produce maximum power output system with battery storage capabilities
ments, which influences the size of the only in the summer months in order to provide 100% of the building's elec-
system, and the BIPV system's opera- to reduce peak electricity costs for air- tricity requirements; a building owner
tion and maintenance requirements. conditioning loads; thus, the system desiring to reduce demand charges will
These factors must all be taken into should be installed at an optimum require a small system that produces
account during the design stages, when orientation and tilt for summer power electricity only during peak utility
the goal is to achieve the highest possi- output. charge hours.
ble value for the BIPV system. Some of
Demonstrations have shown that a sys- Architecturally, the size of the BIPV
the major design considerations unique
tem installed at a tilt angle equivalent system is physically limited to the
to solar energy systems are solar access,
to the site latitude produces the greatest dimensions of the building's available
amount of electricity on an annual surface area. The balance between the
60 BIPV Basics
amount of power required and the the inverter from DC to AC power and lifetime of the PV module. If the
amount of surface area available can then fed into the building or an electric inverter has a lifetime of only 5 years
determine the type of PV technology utility system. If the inverter fails, the and the BIPV facade lasts 25 years,
that will be used. Each technology has entire system malfunctions. replacing the modular inverter has an
an associated range of output in watts associated periodic cost, and access
per square foot or per square meter and Today, most inverters are highly reli- needs to be anticipated and designed
cost per watt. For example, systems able. However, the practice of relying into the project.
made of amorphous silicon require a on only one inverter for a BIPV system
larger surface area but cost less than in a commercial building is problem- The string inverter is the second
equivalent systems composed of single- atic. When BIPV systems are made generation of inverters for buildings.
crystal solar cells. Therefore, in projects up of a large series of interconnected In Europe, one string inverter with the
that have a limited budget but include a strings, there is a technical difficulty in nominal power of 750 watts can con-
large south-facing facade surface area, determining where a system has failed. nect as many as 10 PV modules in a
amorphous silicon can be the most suit- This is akin to the problem people had series and be connected anywhere in
able BIPV technology.To achieve the with old-fashioned Christmas tree the building's electricity distribution
appearance of a uniform surface area, lights. When one light malfunctioned, system. The flexibility, reliability, and
less expensive "mock" or imitation PV the entire string went down, and each increased efficiency offered by string
panels can also be provided by the bulb had be tested to determine the inverters may further reduce the cost
manufacturer. source of the problem. of BIPV systems.
Once the building energy load require- A BIPV system designed so that multi- New AC modules are being equipped
ment is determined, the watt-hour ple inverters work together ensures with individual AC mini-inverters
method can be used to design the elec- greater system reliability. If one inverter mounted on the backs of the PV panels.
trical system. An evaluation of seasonal malfunctions or requires maintenance, They are at the early commercial stages
climatic conditions and variations (tem- it can be disconnected from the array of development in the United States
perature and solar insolation) and the and the BIPV system can still operate. and Switzerland. One benefit of these
available surface area will determine A cascading hierarchy "master-slave" is that they eliminate the need in the
the number of modules that will satisfy configuration includes one master building for the high-voltage DC
the voltage and current requirement inverter and multiple slave inverters wiring associated with other BIPV
of the load. After that, corresponding that operate together for maximum systems.
inverter requirements and BOS require- efficiency
In regard to electrical safety issues,
ments can be specified. Currently, PV
Modular, "micro," or "mini" inverters it is important to note that lightning,
specialists, system integrators, and
allow each module to be tested (each ground faults, and power line surges
consultants provide electrical sizing
has its own address) through the use can cause high voltages in otherwise
information, assessments, and recom-
of a power line carrier signal injected low-voltage BIPV systems. National
mendations. However, BIPV manufac-
into the building's electrical distribu- and international electric code regula-
turers are increasingly providing full
tion system. This way, each unit's tions and building codes are being
turn-key services for large systems
performance can easily be evaluated. amended to include PV technologies
for commercial buildings, and prepack-
Modular inverters also enable PV to and address fire and safety issues con-
aged, standardized, residential systems
be integrated into complex, geometric cerning BIPV design, installation, and
are being sold by distributors. For more
building designs. maintenance.
information on software tools for opti-
mizing PV systems, see Appendix B. Modular inverters are desirable for Codes and Standards
commercial buildings because they
Electrical and Safety Issues The national model codes historically
operate independently. Shading one
have been composed of three primary
Electrical issues primarily involve the module will not interrupt the power
organizations: the International
performance and reliability of the output of the whole array. In single or
Conference of Building Officials
inverters. The variety available for multiple inverter systems, a number
(ICBO), Building Officials Code
BIPV systems include single inverters, of modules are connected in series to
Administrators International (BOCA),
master-slave inverter configurations, achieve the voltage needed by the
and the Southern Building Code
modular inverters, and parallel- selected inverter. Shading any one
Conference International (SBCCI).
independent or string inverters. A module in this series can negate the
These organizations have collaborated
BIPV system is most vulnerable to a output of the entire string.
to create one umbrella organization,
single-point failure where the power
One design issue related to the modular the International Code Conference
generated from the BIPV array must be
inverter is whether it will last the (ICC). The ICC has begun the process
transformed and synchronized through
BIPV Basics 61
of writing one model code, the Inter- 2000 by the International Residential package known as FEDcheck to assist
national Building Codes. These codes Code. The CABO document is not users in understanding and complying
began development in 1996, and the being updated at this time, and changes with the code. For more information,
entire group will be published by the will need to be made to the IRC. The contact Stephen Walder, DOE, 202-
year 2000. Although these codes must change process for both the IECC and 586-9209, or Robert Lucas, Pacific
be adopted by each municipality to IRC will occur annually until 2003 and Northwest National Laboratory,
have any authority, they will be the at three-year intervals after 2003. 509-375-3789 (online, see http://www.
most up-to-date ones that can be energycodes.org/federal/federal.htm).
adopted after the year 2000. This is a Commercial Codes & Products — DOE
major step toward a unifying model supports commercial energy codes, DOE has also prepared a third edition
code, reducing the duplication and especially ASHRAE 90.1, by helping to of its Building Standards and Guide-
diversity of the previous three code develop them and by providing tools lines Program catalogue. This catalogue
bodies. The change process for all ICC and resources that make the codes is one of many services that promote
codes will occur annually until 2003 easier to use. The COMcheck-EZTM the adoption, implementation, and
and at three-year intervals after 2003. materials were developed to simplify enforcement of residential and com-
and clarify commercial and high-rise mercial building energy codes. One of
To date, these codes do not refer specifi- residential building energy code the primary goals of the program is to
cally to BIPV systems, leaving compli- requirements. The materials include provide products and services that
ance to the discretion of local building easy to use IBM-compatible software; make it easy for builders, architects,
inspectors. If BIPV is the structural compliance guides for envelope, light- designers, building code officials, and
equivalent of a current building mater- ing, and mechanical requirements; and state energy officials to implement
ial, only specific code provisions or prescriptive packages for county-based building energy codes.
compliance required for the structural climate zones. Forms and a checklist
equivalent will be necessary. However, are included to document compliance. The catalogue features many products
the typical crystalline PV cell adds All COMcheck-EZ materials can be that will quickly and efficiently imple-
weight to the traditional building downloaded at no cost. If you down- ment the requirements of the Model
product relative to a thin filmed glaz- load any material, please register with Energy Code; the American Society
ing, and this may require closer evalua- the program so you will be notified of of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
tion by code officials. Because of their upgrades (online, see http://www. Conditioning Engineers and Illumin-
multifunctional nature, BIPV systems energycodes.org/comm/comm.htm). ating Engineering Society of North
must also comply with the National America Standard 90.1-1989; and the
Electric Code (NEC), which addresses Federal Building Codes — The current Federal Performance Standards for
PV power systems but not BIPV Federal code for low-rise residential New Commercial and Multi-Family
specifically. energy efficiency (10 CFR Part 435, High-Rise Residential Buildings.
sub-part C) can be obtained online (see
Local codes vary by state and munici- http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/ In addition to the catalogue, the
pality, and some covenant-controlled cfr-retrieve.html#page1). DOE has been MECcheck and COMcheck-EZ compli-
communities regulate the appearance updating this code. The proposed rule- ance tools and manuals may be down-
of buildings for architectural aesthetics making for the Energy Efficiency Code loaded at no cost from the Building
and homogeneity. This may affect deci- for new Federal Residential Buildings Standards and Guidelines Web site at
sions about the suitability of BIPV sys- was published in the May 2, 1997, edi- http://www.energycodes.org/. For
tems. Furthermore, a few communities tion of the Federal Register. A printed more information, or to place an order,
in the United States have developed copy of the rulemaking can be obtained call the U.S. Department of Energy
zoning ordinances relative to solar in Federal Register Volume 62, Number Building Standards and Guidelines
access laws that could affect BIPV sys- 85, pages 24163-24209, or at the online program hotline at 1-800-270-CODE
tems and structures that may shade address above. (online, see http://www.energycodes.
solar systems. org/news/catalog.htm).
The proposed rule is based on the 1995
Residential Energy Codes — The Model version of the Model Energy Code, but State Energy Codes — The status of
Energy Code (MEC) has been pub- it contains more stringent envelope each state’s building energy codes is
lished by the Council of American requirements and rules related to radon current as of September 1997. The list is
Building Officials (CABO). The MEC is control and backdrafting from fossil- likely to become less accurate in time,
no longer being updated, and is being fuel-burning appliances. DOE has been however, as states adopt new codes.
replaced by the International Energy preparing the final rule based on com- Thus, there will be continual updates.
Conservation Code (IECC). The CABO ments received on the proposed rule Printed copies of the State Building
requirement for one- and two-family and expects to issue it in 1999. DOE Codes Database are available for $15 by
dwellings is being replaced in the year is also preparing a code compliance calling 1-800-270-CODE. To view the
62 BIPV Basics
status of a particular state’s energy This exhaust can combine with sun- Atrium systems — BIPV is a glass ele-
codes, select a state from the list online baked atmospheric dust to reduce the ment that provides different degrees
(see http://www.energycodes.org/ amount of light that can reach the of shading and can be designed to
states/ states.htm). The status of the modules and thus reduce system per- enhance indoor thermal comfort as
state energy codes can be found at formance. Such systems may require well as daylighting.
http://www.bcap.com . periodic cleaning with chemical agents
to maximize the system's electrical out- Awning and Shading systems — A vari-
Maintenance put. Consequently, system designers ety of PV materials can be mounted
must ensure adequate access to the onto a facade in aesthetic manner to
PV has no recurring fuel costs, and it
system to perform these maintenance serve as awnings.
is promoted as a simple energy technol-
ogy that is durable and relatively main- activities.
Roofing systems — The BIPV system
tenance-free because it has no moving displaces conventional roofing materi-
Failure-related maintenance involves
parts. However, designers should als such as tiles, shingles, and metal
repairs and replacements associated
ensure that BIPV installations allow roofing.
with poor performance or failures of
easy access for inspecting, repairing,
the BIPV system. This can be covered
and replacing components. Mainten- The cost of a BIPV system depends
under traditional and extended
ance costs can be divided into two cate- on the type of system and the PV
warranties.
gories: preventive and failure-related. technology used in manufacturing it.
Currently, only a few U.S. manufactur-
Preventative maintenance can ensure Warranties ers produce custom and standardized
the performance of a BIPV system. BIPV systems are generally covered BIPV products. For commercial and
Shadowing on the PV array caused by a limited 12-month replacement institutional structures and buildings,
by the natural or built environment warranty that guards against defects the two primary types of BIPV prod-
reduces system output. Sunlight and ensures system repair and product ucts, facades and roofing materials, are
reflects off expanses of sand, snow, replacements or an optional full refund available for both new construction and
ice, and other light surfaces, and can of the purchase price. In case of an acci- refurbishment projects.
increase output by reflecting additional dent, such as a fire, ancillary damage to
solar energy onto arrays. However, a BIPV system may be covered by a BIPV Facade Systems — BIPV facade
other structures, trees, and bushes near conventional building insurance policy. systems include laminated and pat-
a BIPV system can inhibit solar access terned glass, spandrel glass panels, and
and thus reduce system performance. Currently, the major PV manufacturers curtain wall glazing systems. These
This is in turn detrimental to the offer power production warranties for BIPV products can displace traditional
economic performance of the system. as long as 10, 20, and 25 years. These construction materials. Laminated glass
manufacturers will replace the power is a standardized BIPV product. It is
In the case of building retrofits, land- output lost from modules that fail to composed of two pieces of glass with
scaping can often shade parts of a roof produce at least 80% of the minimum PV solar cells sandwiched between
and limit solar access, so landscape power output specified on the back of them, an encapsulant of ethylene-vinyl
architecture must be considered, and the module. This warranty dates from acetate (EVA) or another encapsulant
trees must be trimmed periodically. the sale of the product to the original material, and a translucent or colored
purchaser and is generally nontrans- tedlar-coated polyester backsheet. It
The electrical performance of a BIPV ferrable. Other suppliers also offer can also be made with only one piece
system can also be affected by accumu- optional warranties on roofing through of glass and a tedlar backsheet.
lations of dirt on the modules. In most service and maintenance contracts. Architects can specify the color of the
locations, normal rainfall removes the
tedlar backsheet.
layers of dust and pollution that can BIPV Products
accumulate on the outer surface. Where Spandrel panels are the opaque glass
These are the types of BIPV systems
there is little rainfall, occasionally used between floors in commercial
commercially available:
spraying the system with water from glass building facades. A glazed curtain
a standard garden hose to remove Facade systems — The BIPV system is wall is a non-load-bearing exterior wall
dirt and debris is adequate but not designed to act as an outer skin and suspended in front of the structural
required. weather barrier as part of the building frame and wall elements. Patterned or
envelope. An example is a BIPV system fritted glass is semitransparent with
The performance of a BIPV system can
used for rainscreen overcladding. Glass distinctive geometric or linear designs.
decline if it is located in a particularly
BIPV products are typically used as
dirty urban environment. Layers of
facade systems.
grime, caused by fuel exhaust and other
emissions, can accumulate on a system.
BIPV Basics 63
PIX08462
Solar Design Associates, Inc./PIX04472
Figure 1. AC PV modules, Solar Design Associates Figure 2. Architectural PV glazing system, Innovative
Design, Inc.
Figure 3. PV-integrated modular homes, Fully Figure 4. Rooftop PV systems, Energy Conversion
Independent Residential Solar Technology, Inc. Devices, Inc.
Some companies sell custom-made Curtain wall laminates are available for Flexible thin-film amorphous silicon
BIPV glazing products, available in any both AC and DC power. The AC panel BIPV shingles can replace asphalt
size or dimension and consisting of any has its own mini-inverter attached to shingles. This BIPV product is nailed to
PV technology (crystalline or thin film). the back of the laminate. The AC the roof deck, very much the way that
The architect can indicate the spacing PowerWall™ operates with current at traditional asphalt shingles are attached
between solar cells, which will deter- maximum power with 2.0 amps (A) to a roof. This technology was designed
mine the power supply and also permit and 110 volts (V). The DC PowerWall™ as a 2-kilowatt peak (kWp) BIPV sys-
the design of passive solar features by operates at maximum power with 3.5 A tem for the Southface Energy Institute
regulating the amount of daylighting and 68.4 V. The PowerWall™ generates in Atlanta, Georgia. Also available
allowed to enter into the builiding. 250 watts (W) under standard test are fiber cement PV roofing shingles
These products can be used in any com- conditions (STC). measuring 16 in. (40 cm) by 12 in.
mercial glazing application. Standard (30 cm) by 1/4 in. (0.6 cm) and weigh-
and custom products are available in BIPV Roofing Systems — Roofing sys- ing 5 pounds (2.27 kg). Crystalline sili-
many sizes (as large as 1.3 m x 1.7 m) tems include BIPV shingles, metal con cells are laminated to fiber cement
and in a range of thicknesses (0.5 mm roofing, and exterior insulation roof roofing shingles and are rated at 11 W
to 2.5 mm glass). systems. These BIPV products can dis- of power output under STC.
place traditional construction materials.
64 BIPV Basics
BIPV metal roofing can replace an has brought together PV and building funding additional projects in 1997
architectural standing seam. The thin- product manufacturers in a coordinated under a second program known as
film amorphous silicon PV material is effort to develop PV roofing shingles, PV:BONUS Two.
laminated directly onto long metal facade glazing, and curtain wall prod-
roofing panels. The BIPV metal roofing ucts for buildings and other structures. PV:BONUS (June 1993 – May 1999). The
panels, with edges turned up, are laid Today there is a recognizable commer- five projects originally funded by the
side by side and a cap is placed over the cialization trend toward standardizing PV:BONUS program have all been suc-
standing edges to form a seam. These BIPV construction products. In the long cessfully installed in demonstration
metal panels can be installed by a tradi- run, product standardization will be an projects, and most are now commer-
tional roofer followed by an electrician. essential element in reducing the cost cially available to the buildings indus-
of manufacturing BIPV systems. The try. These new technologies include the
As an exterior insulation BIPV roof sys- following section on new construction following.
tem, PV laminates are attached to poly- materials for buildings was extracted
styrene insulation, and it provides • AC photovoltaic module and curtain
from a paper written by Sheila J.
thermal insulation rated R-10 or R-15. wall application (Figure 1)
Hayter, P.E. (NREL) & Robert L. Martin
It rests on the waterproof membrane (DOE). This paper, titled "Photovoltaics • Architectural PV glazing system
without penetrating or being mechani- for Buildings, Cutting Edge PV," was (Figure 2)
cally fastened to the building. In an presented at the UPEX conference in
interlocking tongue-and-groove assem- 1998. Below is the section on Building • Dispatchable PV peak-shaving
bly, the panels are weighed down by Opportunities in the U.S. for Photo- system
pavers that surround the system to voltaics (PV:BONUS).
provide access for maintenance and • PV-integrated modular homes
repairs. Channels or raceways are The U.S. Department of Energy demon- (Figure 3)
designed to provide access to the elec- strates its commitment to supporting
trical connections. This technology can new PV-for-buildings technologies by • Rooftop BIPV standing-seam systems
be used to redo the roof of an existing awarding Cooperative Agreement (Figure 4).
building, as demonstrated by the New funding to U.S. manufacturers and
AC Photovoltaic Module and Curtain
York Power Authority on a community organizations for product develop-
Wall Application. The product devel-
center in Tuckahoe, New York. ment. These agreements are within the
oped for this PV:BONUS project was a
Additionally, the PV portion of the Building Opportunities in the U.S. for
large-area PV module with a dedicated,
product can be tilted up to 12° to help Photovoltaics (PV:BONUS) program.
integrally mounted, direct-current (DC)
optimize the system's orientation. The objective of the PV:BONUS pro-
to alternating-current (AC) power
gram is to develop technologies and to
This system can be installed on built- inverter (Figure 1). The module is
foster business arrangements that inte-
up and single-ply membranes of flat designed to be integrated into the
grate photovoltaics or hybrid products
commercial roofs and typically weighs vertical facades and sloped-roof
into buildings cost-effectively. Cost-
4 lb/ft2 versus 10 lb/ft2 for a conven- construction of residential, commercial,
effectiveness, either through design;
tional aggregate ballast roof. Any PV or institutional buildings. Large spaces
integration (i.e., components, system,
technology can be applied in this pro- between the PV cells can be incorpo-
and/or building integration); dedicated
cess and will provide power according rated into the module design to allow
end-use applications; or technology
to its solar cell and system efficiency direct sunlight to transmit through the
bundling (i.e., PV/thermal hybrids) is
rating. module. The building designer can use
a major factor in selecting PV:BONUS
this feature to enhance daylighting and
projects. DOE is interested in products
The manufacturer claims that this provide passive solar heating to the
that can replace commercial building
product extends normal roof life by space adjacent to the modules. Solar
products and be installed without the
protecting insulation and membranes Design Associates, Inc., led develop-
necessity for specialized training. The
from ultraviolet (UV) rays and water ment efforts for this project. Other team
ultimate goal of the PV:BONUS pro-
degradation. It does this by eliminating members included Mobil Solar Energy
gram is market demonstrations of com-
condensation because the dew point Corp., New England Electric, New
mercially viable products that lead to
is kept above the roofing membrane. York Power Authority, Pacific Gas and
manufacturer commitments to pursue
Electric, Kawneer, Maryland Energy
production and sales.
BIPV Product Development Administration, and Baltimore Gas
Since the early 1990s, the U.S. Depart- In 1993, the U.S. Department of Energy and Electric.
ment of Energy's (DOE's) Photo- awarded cooperative agreements for
Architectural PV Glazing System. A
voltaics: Building Opportunities in the five PV:BONUS projects. The success
system of matching building facade
United States (PV:BONUS) program of this initial effort resulted in DOE
glazing products including opaque,
BIPV Basics 65
semitransparent, and clear units was this PV:BONUS project was to design divided into four categories: 1) glazing
developed. A large-area, thin-film PV a line of modular solar homes that products; 2) roofing materials; 3) PV/
module option was available for the include photovoltaic power. To meet thermal (PV/T) hybrid systems; and
opaque and semitransparent units. The this objective, it was necessary to mini- 4) other related projects (inverter tech-
system was incorporated into the over- mize construction costs of the home so nology, fire retardancy investigations,
head glazing of a demonstration project that the higher cost of the PV system and development of a "mini-grid").
in an Applebee’s Neighborhood Grill could be absorbed into the overall cost At the completion of Phase I, seven of
and Bar in Salisbury, NC (Figure 2). The of the home. The effort was lead by these projects were selected for contin-
designers placed a high-absorptance Fully Independent Residential Solar ued Phase II funding. Phase II is cur-
metal pan approximately 1 in. (2.5 cm) Technologies, Inc. (FIRST, Inc.), a rently under way and the following
below the back of the panel to increase non-profit organization teamed with projects are being pursued:
effectiveness for solar heating of the air Bradley Builders and Avis America
behind the panels. Fans operated by the (a builder of manufactured homes). • PV-powered electrochromic windows
PV system drew the heated air through
Rooftop Photovoltaic Systems. The • Thin-film PV product line
an air-to-water heat exchanger to
reduce the restaurant’s energy demand result of this PV:BONUS project was
• Hybrid PV/thermal collector
for producing hot water. Drawing hot the development of residential and
air off the back of the PV panels also light-commercial PV-integrated roofing • Ballast-mounted PV arrays
increased the operating efficiency of materials. These amorphous-silicon
the panels. Although the manufacturer modules are manufactured either to • PV string inverters
of the PV panels and leader of this resemble asphalt shingles or to be lami-
nated onto metal standing-seam roof • Field-applied PV membrane
PV:BONUS team, Advanced Photo-
voltaic Systems (APS), is no longer in modules (Figure 4). One of the goals of
• PowerRoofTM 2000.
existence, the PV technology the com- the project was to develop a product
pany developed continues to be used that required no special training to PV-Powered Electrochromic Windows.
by the PV industry. Innovative Design install the PV-roof on actual buildings. Sage Electrochromics, in conjunction
partnered with APS to design the These products have been tested in with Solarex, proposes to develop and
Applebee’s system. demonstration projects and are now commercialize photovoltaic (PV) pow-
commercially available. The leader ered electrochromic (EC) "smart win-
Dispatchable PV Peak Shaving of this development team, Energy dows." EC windows control the amount
System. A fully integrated dispatchable Conversion Devices, Inc., worked of sunlight and solar heat by dynami-
peak-shaving system for commercial with United Solar Systems Corp., the cally switching between darkened and
applications was designed for this National Association of Home Builders, clear states and anywhere in between.
PV:BONUS project. The focus of the Solar Design Associates, Inc., and a They provide an opportunity to realize
project was to reliably control the PV number of utility companies, construc- energy savings and reduce peak
system output for a prescribed length tion companies, government agencies, electrical demand in buildings. The
of time by including battery storage and educational institutions to design, low-power DC voltage required to
with the PV system. The dispatchable manufacture, and test this product. power the EC window glazing will be
system made it possible to displace a supplied by PV solar cells incorporated
load greater than the array’s output PV:BONUS Two (September 1997 – early
in the double-pane insulating glass unit
during peak demand periods. This fea- 2000s). PV:BONUS Two activities are
(IGU) so that no external hard-wired
ture is especially important in commer- being carried out in three phases. Phase
connections are needed.
cial buildings where the peak demand I was the concept development and
period often extends beyond the period business planning phase. Prototype Thin-Film Photovoltaics. With the
of peak power production of the PV systems will be developed and tested support of subcontractors Kawneer,
system. Delmarva Power and Light in Phase 2, the product and business Solar Design Associates, Inc., and
Company was responsible for this development phase. Product demon- Viracon, Solarex will develop building-
PV:BONUS effort. stration and marketing will occur in integrated photovoltaic products using
Phase 3. It is expected that viable prod- tandem-junction amorphous silicon
PV-Integrated Modular Homes. ucts will be offered commercially dur- modules. Major objectives of the pro-
Installing residential photovoltaic sys- ing Phase 3. Participation in Phases 2 gram include: 1) developing a commer-
tems onto homes constructed in a fac- and 3 depend on the accomplishments cial photovoltaic curtain wall module
tory along with other energy-efficient of the previous phases. (Spandrel Module); 2) developing a
features result in reducing the total commercial photovoltaic sunshade for
construction cost of the manufactured The U.S. Department of Energy
curtain walls (PowerTint Window);
homes to be comparable to typical site- awarded 17 Phase I cooperative
and 3) developing a light-transmitting
built homes (Figure 3). The objective of agreements. These project areas were
66 BIPV Basics
must exist for the ballast-mounting and fabric roofing systems. The
BIPV Basics 67
building designers want PV systems PV modules will be close to that of Other products are designed to be used
that can be integrated into the building high-end glass products, making it in flat-roof commercial retrofit applica-
envelope and blend well with other easier for designers to justify the cost tions. They include an insulated unit
building envelope components and of PV. with PV integrated into the top layer
materials. Many of the products that and a roof membrane product with PV
have been or are being developed with Designers are beginning to integrate integrated into the membrane.
assistance from the PV:BONUS photovoltaics into sunshade building
Program meet these criteria. components. Sunshades are used to The cutting-edge PV products dis-
reduce the direct solar gain into a build- cussed in this paper are only an exam-
New products such as transparent ing, which also reduces the building ple of what is available or expected to
thin-film PV modules, for which the cooling loads (Figure 5). The angle of become available for buildings applica-
designer can specify the transmissivity, the sunshade can also be set to optimize tions. This is not an exhaustive list,
are expected to become commercially the output of the PV/sunshade system. however.
available in the near future. The
designer will be able to specify both Several PV-roofing products are Source: Sheila J. Hayter, P.E., and
view glass and curtain wall PV now commercially available. One Robert L. Martin, "Photovoltaics for
modules, so that the entire facade of crystalline-silicon-cell product replaces Buildings, Cutting Edge PV," presented
a building can be clad in PV. Manu- traditional roofing materials and is at the Utility PV Experience Conference
facturers predict that the price of these usually used in new construction. & Exhibition, October 1998.
68 BIPV Basics
BIPV Terminology
Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) is a relatively recent new application of
photovoltaic (PV) energy technologies. These are some of the basic terms used in
describing PV technologies, BIPV products, and their uses:
Bypass diode — a diode connected across one or more solar cells in a photovoltaic
module to protect these cells from thermal destruction in case of total or partial
shading of individual cells while other cells are exposed to full light.
Encapsulant — Plastic or other material around PV cells that protects them from
environmental damage.
BIPV Terminology 69
Kiss, G.; Kinkead, J. (1995). Optimal Schoen, T.; Prasad, D.; Toggweiler, P.;
Bibliography Building-Integrated Photovoltaic
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Eiffert, P.; and Sorensen, H. (1997).
“Building with Photovoltaics—The
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CO: National Renewable Energy the Utility Distribution System: The
Berdner, J.; Whitaker, C.; Wenger, H.; Laboratory. Evaluation of System and Distribution
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Carlisle, N.; Taylor, P. Eiffert; Crawley, Murphy, A. (1998) Pacific Northwest Sick, F.; Erge, T. (eds). (1996).
A. Sprunt. (1997). "Federal Efforts to National Laboratory. Personal commu- Photovoltaics in Buildings. IEA Task 16.
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Projects." Proceedings of the American codes.org/meccheck/
Solar Energy Annual Conference, April Taylor, P.; Becker, M.; Ezell, L. (1997).
25-30, Washington, DC. National Renewable Energy "Technical Assistance for New Federal
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Dinwoodie, T.L.; Shugar, D.S. (1994). Buildings: An Overview of Today’s Institution Air and Space Museum
"Optimizing Roof-Integrated Applications (Revised). DOE/GO-10097- Dulles Center." Energy & Environmental
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1004–1007. National Renewable Energy
Laboratory. (1994). Solar Radiation Data U.S. Department of Energy. (1998).
Eiffert, P. (1998). An Economic Manual for Flat-Plate and Concentrating Federal Technology Alert: Photovoltaics.
Assessment of Building Integrated Collectors. NREL/TP-463-5607, DOE/GO-10098-484. Washington, DC:
Photovoltaics. Ph.D. Dissertation, DE93018229. Golden, CO: NREL, April. US DOE, April.
Oxford Brookes School of Architecture.
Paradis, A.; Shugar, D.S. (1994). U.S. Department of Energy. (1995).
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Demeo, E.A. (1995). "Terrestrial, Grid- Today, Vol. 8, No. 3, May/June; pp. 203-Rev1, DE93000075. Washington,
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70 Bibliography
Appendix A:
International Activities
"Building with Photovoltaics — The Challenge For Task VII Of The IEA PV Power Systems
Program" by T. Schoen1, D. Prasad2, P. Toggweiler3, P. Eiffert4 and H. Sørensen5
2: National Solar Architecture Research Unit, UNSW, Sydney NSW 2052, Australia,
Abstract
On January 1, 1997, a new Task started within International Energy Agency’s Photovoltaic
Power Systems (IEA PVPS) Program: Task VII. The objective of Task VII is to enhance the archi-
tectural quality, the technical quality and the economic viability of PV systems in the built envi-
ronment and to assess and remove non-technical barriers to their introduction as an
energy-significant option. The value of building integration for the introduction of grid-con-
nected PV is recognized around the world. Rooftop programs, aiming at large-scale application
in the next century, are carried out in many countries. In order to reach this widespread applica-
tion, however, cost reductions still are essential. BIPV research and development should there-
fore focus on achieving these cost reductions, by optimizing integration concepts, by
developing new building products and by the development of standardized products.
Building-integrated PV does more than offer perspectives for the next century. PV systems are
installed today by building owners who appreciate the added value of solar roofs and facades,
and who are willing to pay a premium for PV. This market potential must be captured and
assisted. From the research and development side, this can be done by focusing on architectural
issues and on non-technical barriers that impede short-term market penetration. The work in
Task VII concentrates on all these aspects. The Task VII research and development strategy is to
enhance systems technologies, to work on the architecture of building integrated PV, and to
assess and remove non-technical barriers that impede the widespread application of PV in the
built environment.
02527250m
(U.S. $/Wp) (U.S. $/kWh) market factors that impede the wide-
8 0.8
Mounting and spread application of PV in buildings.
7 installation 0.7
6 0.6 In brief, Task VII will work on R&D in
Substructure
the following fields:
5 0.5
Cabling
4 0.4 (1) BIPV technologies
Inverters
3 0.3 (2) PV and architecture
2 Modules 0.2
0.1 (3) Non-technical barriers
1
0 0.0 BIPV Technologies
NL NL IT IT
(NL = Netherlands; IT = Italy.) The technologies that are now available
for the integration of PV into buildings
Figure 1. Overview of BIPV system costs in ECU/Wp (left) and the resulting are, in general, too expensive for large-
PV electricity costs in ECU/kWh (right), for different countries and scale introduction. Cost reductions
calculation methods (optimistic: maximum performance ratio, low interest are thus still essential. They can be
rate; pessimistic: average performance ratio, high interest rate). achieved by carefully redesigning the
Note: Currently, the ECU is equivalent to one U.S. dollar. PV support structure, and by integrat-
ing the PV system into well-known
building components such as the pre-
Upscaling of the near-term BIPV mar- energy-significant option. This objec- fabricated roof or the structural-glazing
ket will, moreover, be possible only if tive reflects the R&D strategies men- facade.
non-technical barriers that impede the tioned earlier.
application of BIPV are addressed and Development of standardized
dealt with successfully. The major bar- The primary focus of Task VII is on the PV/building units
rier to overcome here could well be the integration of PV into the architectural
design of (roofs and facades of residen- The development of low-cost, flat roof-
involvement of builders and building mounting elements such as the Sofrel
owners in the design and implementa- tial, commercial, and industrial) build-
ings and other structures in the built [3] show that, through careful redesign
tion of building integrated PV. R&D, of substructures from the low-cost
as well as pilot and demonstration environment (such as noise barriers,
parking areas, and railway canopies). point of view, cost reductions up to
projects, should work on the achieve- 50% are possible for substructure and
ment of this involvement as well as Also important are the market factors,
both technical and non-technical, that mounting costs. A similar strategy
on the removal of other non-technical could be applied in the development of
barriers such as the lack of information, need to be addressed and resolved
before wide adoption of PV in the built mounting structures for sloped roofs
confidence, or appropriate financing and facades. PV facades in general still
mechanisms. environment will occur.
use tailor-made solutions, suitable only
Essential for the success of Task VII is for custom-made modules, requiring
R&D STRATEGIES FOR the active involvement of urban plan- case-by-case engineering and installa-
TASK VII ners, architects, building engineers, tion by specialists, which lead to high-
In recognition of the potential of and the building industry. Task VII is quality but high-price solutions.
building-integrated PV to the develop- very keen on the collaboration between
ment and introduction of photovoltaics, these groups and PV system specialists, For new buildings, integration of stan-
IEA's PV Power Systems Program in utility specialists, the PV industry, dard PV modules into low-cost, every-
January 1997 launched a new task: Task and other professionals involved in day cladding systems is required,
VII - PV in the Built Environment. photovoltaics. whereas for existing buildings, low-cost
add-on systems offer good cost per-
The objective of Task VII is to enhance The joint effort will consist mainly of spectives. In order to make mounting
the architectural quality, the technical the evaluation and development of concepts suitable for application in the
quality, and the economic viability of innovative concepts for the integration vast number of existing buildings with
PV systems in the built environment of PV into the built environment, the a poor energy balance, add-on systems
and to assess and remove non-technical demonstration of integration concepts, should include extra thermal insulation
barriers to its introduction as an contribution to the development of layers.
REFERENCES
[1] Palz, W., and Van Overstraeten, R.
(1995). Strategic Options for PV
Development in Europe. In:
Figure 2: The National Association of Home Builders 21st Century Proceedings of the 13th EC
Townhome at the National Research Home Park in Bowie, Maryland, USA; Photovoltaic Energy Conference,
883–886.
it is one of the Task VII projects to be evaluated.
[2] Barnes, H. (ed) (1997). Photovoltaic
PV will be largely accepted by builders, taken into account from the very start power systems in selected IEA
architects, and end-users only if the of the building process, where the first member countries. EA Technology,
quality of BIPV systems fully meets the decisions have a major impact on the Capehurst Chester, UK.
requirements of everyday construction ways to include PV in the building (e.g.,
elements. the orientation of the building). Tools [3] Toggweiler, P., Ruoss, D., Roecker, C.,
for shaping and sizing of the PV system Bonvin, J., Muller, A., and Affolter, P.
The development of such quality can range from intricate software pack- (1997). Sofrel flat roof system and first
schemes is a part of the work of Task ages (linked to the overall energy installation. In: Proceedings of the
VII as well as an import issue of the design tools) to easy aids as an irradia- 14th EC Photovoltaic Energy
European BIPV programs. As an exam- tion disk. Conference, 701–704.
ple, the Joule PRESCRIPT project aims
at the development of guidelines and R&D is required in both energy plan- [4] Boumans, J.H. and Schoen, T. (1996).
pre-standards for the testing and certifi- ning and the design and sizing of PV Prefab Energy-roof — trends and
cation of building-integrated PV [7]. systems, within the overall design of developments. Ecofys, Utrecht, the
the energy system of the building. Netherlands.
Training and education
PV can be included in building projects Concerning education, 'PV at schools' [5] Bruton, T.M, e.a. (1997). A study of the
only if architects and principals have programs have proven to be successful Manufacture of 500 Wp p.a. of
sufficient knowledge about PV tech- in a number of European countries [8]. Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic
nologies and appropriate design tools In order to teach the architects, Modules. In: Proceedings of the 14th
to assist them. builders, and occupants of the future EC Photovoltaic Energy Conference,
how to work with PV, integration of PV 11–16.
Design tools can range from planning into educational programs at all levels
instruments to tools for shaping and is important. A follow-up of national
sizing the PV systems. Planning instru- activities at the European level could
ments are required to ensure that PV is enhance this process.
Austria Sweden
Reinhard Haas Mats Andersson
haas@risc.iew.tuwien.ac.at mats.andersson@mbox10.swipnet.se
Canada Switzerland
Per Drewes Christian Roecker
Per.Drewes@hydro.on.ca Roecker@LESOsun1.epfl.ch
Appendix B: Contacts for International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power System Task VII 77
Appendix C:
Design Tools
Dru Crawley, DOE Program Manager for Building Energy Tools, has established a Building
Energy Software Tools Directory. This directory is available on the Internet online; see
http://www. eren.doe.gov/buildings/tools_directory/.
Software building design tools are divided into categories that include Energy Simulation,
Utility Evaluation, Energy Economics, Atmospheric Pollution, Envelope Systems, Solar Climate
Analysis, Codes and Standards: Development and Compliance, and Load Calculations. The
software tools described in this section may be particularly useful to those designing buildings
and other structures into which photovoltaic power systems are integrated.
Contact:
TRNSYS Coordinator
Solar Energy Laboratory
University of Wisconsin
1500 Johnson Drive
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
Telephone: 608-263-1589
Facsimile: 608-262-8464
E-mail: trnsys@sel.me.wisc.edu
Online: http://sel.me.wisc.edu/
trnsys/download.htm
Dr. Eiffert completed her doctorate in Architecture Kiss + Cathcart designed "Under the Sun," a major
on building-integrated photovoltaics at Oxford exhibition of solar design and architecture at the
Brookes University Post-Graduate Research School Cooper Hewitt, National Design Museum,
in the United Kingdom. Dr. Eiffert has authored Smithsonian Institution. The exhibit is an investiga-
many articles and publications related to renewable tion of the design implications of the solar future;
energy systems and programs and is a guest lecturer it was originally held in one of the most prestigious
at universities across the country. garden sites in the United States. This is now a
traveling exhibit.
Patrina Eiffert
NREL, M.S. 2723 Gregory J. Kiss
1617 Cole Blvd. 150 Nassau Street, Top Floor
Golden, CO 80401-3393 New York, NY 10038
89
NREL/BK-520-25272
February 2000