Brandbrief

2015
Clean Combustion Concepts

Nr 21
Schone en Zuinige Verbranding
februari 2015
Technologiestichting STW
Colofon Programmabureau Schone Samenstelling Platform
Brandbrief en Zuinige Verbranding Schone en Zuinige Verbranding
De brandbrief, met een oplage Postadres Prof.dr.ir. Th.H. van der Meer, voorzitter
van 450 exemplaren, is een uitgave Technologiestichting STW Universiteit Twente
van het Platform van het STW- Linda de Groot Prof.dr.ir. R.S.G. Baert
technologieprogramma Schone Schone en Zuinige Verbranding TNO Automotive
en Zuinige Verbranding (SZV). Postbus 3021 Dr.ir. M.F.G. Cremers
De Brandbrief bericht over lopende 3502 GA UTRECHT DNV GL Energy
zaken in het programma, vorderingen Internet Prof.dr. L.P.H. de Goey
van onderzoek en ander nieuws www.stw.nl/nl/programma039s/ Technische Universiteit Eindhoven
van participerende bedrijven en clean-combustion-concepts Ir. B. Hakstege
universi-teiten De uitvoering is in Concept en uitgave DAF Trucks NV
handen van Technologiestichting STW. Technologiestichting STW, Utrecht Dr.ir. J.H.A. Kiel
Ontwerp ECN
Redactie Room for ID’s, Nieuwegein Dr.ir. W. de Jong
Prof.dr.ir. Th.H. van der Meer Realisatie Technische Universiteit Delft
Universiteit Twente Argante Argante Amsterdam Prof.dr. H.B. Levinsky
Dr .L.J. Korstanje Fotografie DNV GL Energy
Technologiestichting STW Betrokken instellingen Dr.ir. L. Post
A.M. van der Stroom Druk Shell Global Solutions International
Technologiestichting STW Repro-afdeling FOM/STW-bureau Dr.ir. P. Pronk
Tata Steel
Voor een exemplaar van de Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden Dr.ir. C.J.A. Pulles
Brandbrief kunt u zich aanmelden overgenomen of vermenigvuldigd KIWA Technology
bij het programmabureau. zonder uitdrukkelijke toestemming Prof.dr. D.J.E.M. Roekaerts
Dit is de laatste uitgave van van de redactie. Technische Universiteit Delft
De Brandbrief. STW-nummer Ir. J.N.A. Koomen
2015/00765/STW Stork Thermeq
ISBN Dr. L.J. Korstanje, secretaris
978-90-73461-88-8 Technologiestichting STW

2 Brandbrief STW 2015

Brandbrief 2015
Nr 21 Schone en Zuinige Verbranding
februari 2015
Technologiestichting STW

Schone en zuinige verbranding 3



Inhoud

06 Voorwoord

07 1 / Projects
08 MILDNOX: Fuel flexibility and NO formation in dilute combustion
12 BIOxyFuel: Torrefied Biomass Combustion under Oxy-fuel Conditions in Coal Fired Power Plants

14 XCiDE: Crossing the Combustion modes in Diesel Engines

17 HiTAC: Heavy Fuel-Oil Combustion in a HiTAC Boiler

20 ULRICO: Ultra Rich Combustion of Natural Gas to Syngas

23 MoST: Multi-scale modification of swirling combustion for optimized gas turbines

26 ALTAS: Advanced Low NOx Flexible Fuel Gas Turbine Combustion, Aero and Stationary

28 flexFLOX: Flameless combustion conditions and efficiency improvement of single- and

multiburner-FLOXTM furnaces in relation to changes in fuel and oxidizer composition

31 2 / Promotions
32 Dr. L. Zhou 30 September 2013

33 Dr. S. Ayyaoureddi 9 January 2014

35 Dr. P.G.M. Hoeijmakers 28 January 2014

37 Dr. M. Shahi 24 September 2014

39 Ir. N. Speelman September 2015

4 Brandbrief STW 2015

Schone en zuinige verbranding 5
 Voorwoord

Beste Brandbrief lezer,

Met gemengde gevoelens presenteren we hier Brandbrief no. 21. Met een tevreden en trots
gevoel presenteren we in deze Brandbrief de resultaten van de 8 projecten die intussen zijn
afgerond binnen het Perspectief programma Clean Combustion Concepts. Met de resultaten van
deze projecten zijn stappen gezet naar schonere en zuinigere verbrandingstechnologiën, waar
de betrokken industriële deelnemers mee verder kunnen.

Nu het CCC programma succesvol is afgesloten komt ook het Platform Schone en Zuinige
Verbranding tot een einde. Een platform waarbinnen gedurende de afgelopen 18 jaar de univer-
sitaire groepen met een aantal belangrijke bedrijven en instituten het verbrandingsonderzoek
in Nederland hebben afgestemd. We kunnen met een tevreden gevoel terugkijken op een zeer
vruchtbare samenwerking binnen het platform. Aan de andere kant is het natuurlijk jammer dat
aan dit platform nu een einde komt. Voor de toekomst zijn we echter bijzonder positief gestemd,
omdat de functie van het platform SZV vanaf nu wordt overgenomen door de Nederlandse
Vereniging voor Vlamonderzoek, de NVV. Ook de jaarlijkse nationale conferentie COMBURA zal
in de toekomst door de NVV worden georganiseerd. We zijn ervan overtuigd dat hiermee de
overlegstructuur van de academische groepen en de contacten met het bedrijfsleven van deze
groepen gewaarborgd zijn. Het is nog niet duidelijk wat de toekomst zal zijn van deze Brandbrief.
Zeker is dat dit de laatste aflevering is in deze vorm.

Theo van der Meer (Voorzitter Platform Schone en Zuinige Verbranding)

Philip de Goey (Voorzitter Programmacommissie Clean Combustion Concepts)

6 Brandbrief STW 2015

 1
Projects

Schone en zuinige verbranding 7


MILDNOX: Fuel flexibility and NO formation
in dilute combustion
Projectleaders: prof.dr. H.B. Levinsky,
prof.dr. L.P.H. de Goey, dr. A.V. Mohkov,
dr.ir. J.A. van Oijen
Combustion using highly preheated air, together with
diluted air and/or fuel, is a clean combustion concept that
combines high efficiency and low pollutant emissions
in industrial heating processes. Having names such as
flameless oxidation, high efficiency combustion and MILD
combustion, these methods allow the use of recuperated
heat in high-temperature processes without the penalty
of increased NOx emissions, and offer the possibility
of substantially homogenizing the temperature field in
furnaces.
To permit the optimization of NOx control, and to provide
insight into the ultimate low-NOx potential of these
methods, in the proposed research we investigate
the paths to NO formation in dilute, high temperature
combustion. Towards this end, we have performed
quantitative laser diagnostic measurements of flame
structure, using Raman and LIF in the laminar coflow
geometry (see Fig. 1), combined with detailed numerical
simulations of the structure of the reaction zone (see Fig. 2).
An important part of this research is the analysis of the
preheating and dilution of the fuel and/or oxidizer on
spatial structure and NO formation.
The predictive power of the detailed simulations made
using the GRI-Mech 3.0 chemical mechanism is tested by
comparison of the measured and calculated distributions
of temperature and major species fractions. Laminar
diffusion flames with different degree of preheating of
the coflow and fuel were studied. The structures of a
normal non-preheated diffusion flame (Case NP) and a
MILD flame with preheated and diluted reactants (Case M)
are compared here. Calculated temperature distributions
of these flames are shown in Fig. 2. The flame temperature
and major species (CO, CO2, N2, H2, H2O, CH4 and O2) were
also measured using spontaneous Raman scattering and
8 Brandbrief STW 2015
NO species using Laser-Induced Fluorescence. The ma-
thematical description of the model is governed by a set
of conservation equations for mass, momentum, energy
and species in the cylindrical coordinate. The GRI Mech. 3.0
chemical mechanism is used to obtain the required ther-
modynamic and transport data involved. Mixture-Averaged
transport is used to calculate diffusion velocities of each
species. Radiation effects were also added to calculation
using optically-thin approximation.
Measurements of the in-house developed diffusion burner
are compared against computations and a good agreement
was found for major species and temperature (see Fig 3).
NO concentration obtained by Laser Induced Fluorescence
is compared with computations as shown in Fig. 4. It is
seen that amount of NO is predicted with a reasonable
accuracy (see Fig 4). Additionally, measurements have
been performed using a LJHC burner for Case M. In this
burner the diluted oxidizer coflow is generated by a lean
premixed ceramic burner. In essence, this geometry is a
diluted laminar “jet in hot coflow”. Computations of this
flame have also been performed using detailed chemistry
of GRI 3.0 and Mixture-Averaged transport.
Comparison of computations and measurements of tem-
perature for this flame is shown in Fig. 5 at three different
heights above the fuel jet exit. The “mild” increase in
temperature in the mixing layer (~200 K) is indicative of
MILD combustion under these conditions. NO concentra-
tions of this burner are also compared with computations
(see Fig. 6). It is seen that NO fractions are below 10 ppm
in which majority of the NO is formed in the coflow.
To study flame stabilization of this combustion regime,
we perform numerical study of the the H2-enriched Delft
Jet-in-Hot Coflow (DJHC) burner which is shown in Fig.7.
This burner mimics conditions of Mild combustion in which a
fuel jet is ignited due to being issued into hot burned gases
of coflow. Base fuel in the experiments is Dutch Natural
Gas (DNG) and very recently it has been mixed with various
amounts of H2. It has been observed that addition of H2
has a significant effect on the flame structure and stabiliza-
tion mechanism of the lifted turbulent non-premixed flame.
The present study also reports on the numerical investi-
gation of preferential diffusion effects in autoignition of
H2 containing fuels. These effects are implemented in
the FGM technique for LES of Mild combustion. For this
purpose, a flamelet-based combustion model has been
developed based on Non-unity Lewis mixing layers for
LES of the turbulent igniting CH4/H2 flames in a hot
environment. Various amounts of H2 ranging from 0 to 25
percent of fuel volume have been added to the base fuel
and a significant change in lift-off height and stability of
1 2

3 4

5 6

1 Measurement of a MILD 3 The measured (symbols) 5 The measured (symbols)

flame in the laminar jet-in-
hot-coflow (LJHC) burner.
2 Temperature computa-
tions of (left) Case NP and
(right) Case M.
and calculated temperature
(lines) in Case NP at three
different heights as a function
of the radial distance.
4 The measured (symbols)
and calculated NO in Case
NP at three different heights
as a function of the radial
distance.
and calculated temperature
in Case M at three different
heights as a function of the
radial distance.
6 The measured (symbols)
and calculated NO in Case
M at three different heights
as a function of the radial
distance.

Schone en zuinige verbranding 9

 the flames has been observed. The goal of this research
is not to provide a comprehensive validation of all cases
against experimental data (which is not available) but to
illustrate effect of preferential diffusion in complex inter-
actions of mixing and kinetic on the flame’s stability.The
LES has been performed by taking into account variances
of controlling variables that have been computed by pre-
sumed beta-PDF approach. Turbulent inflow conditions are
generated using a random noise generator.
Comparison of computed mean streamwise velocities
against measurements is shown in Fig.8 for case
DJHC-00H2 (pure DNG). It can be seen that the mean
velocity field agrees very well with the measurements.
Fig. 9 shows a comparison of the computed and measured
RMS values of streamwise and spanwise velocity and the
resulting turbulent kinetic energy. It is clear that applica-
10 Brandbrief STW 2015
tion of the random noise generator has been successfully
reproduced the experimental inflow turbulent fluctuations.
The temperature field has been computed by application
of the developed LES-FGM-PDF model employing non-unity
Lewis numbers. Instantaneous snapshots of the tempera-
ture field are shown in Fig. 10. In these snapshots the for-
mation of ignition kernels can be observed. This observation
corresponds to experimentally observed ignition kernels.
A comparison of Favre-averaged distributions of predicted
OH mass fraction for all studied cases with unity Lewis
and non-unity Lewis numbers (not shown here) indicates
that the concentration of OH increase significantly by
addition of hydrogen. Inclusion of preferential diffusion in
the combustion model affects the stabilization and lift-off
height of the predicted flames significantly, especially
for DJHC-05H2 and DJHC-10H2 (5 and 10% H2 addition,
respectively). By comparison with the most probable flame
7 Schematic of Delft Jet-in-
8 Hot Coflow (DJHC) burner of
Oldenhof et al.
8 Comparison of computed
radial profiles of mean stream-
wise velocity at heights
Z = 15, 60 and 90 (solid lines)
against measurements (open
symbols) for Case 00H2.
9 Comparison of computed
centerline RMS values of
streamwise and spanwise
velocity and turbulent kinetic
energy (solid lines) against
measurements (symbols) for
9
Case 00H2.

10
luminescence line, it is indicated that hydrogen enriched
cases require inclusion of preferential diffusion effects in
the combustion model for an accurate prediction of lift-off
height especially for cases DJHC-05H2 and DJHC-10H2.
Concluding Remarks
We have developed an efficient and reliable numerical
model to predict MILD combustion of natural gas and
hydrogen mixtures. With this model, new furnaces for the
high-temperature process industry can be developed.
In real furnaces, however, the conditions might be quite
Publications
[1] S.E. Abtahizadeh, PhD Thesis “Numerical study of Mild combustion
from laminar flames to Large Eddy Simulation of turbulent flames with
Flamelet Generated Manifolds”, Eindhoven University of Technology
(2014). Advisers: Prof. Dr. Philip de Goey and Dr. Ir. Jeroen van Oijen
[2] Sepman, A., Abtahizadeh, E., Mokhov, A., van Oijen, J., Levinsky, H.,
de Goey, P. Experimental and numerical studies of the effects of
hydrogen addition on the structure of a laminar methane–nitrogen jet
in hot coflow under MILD conditions. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 38,
13802-13811 (2013).
[3] Abtahizadeh, S.E., Sepman, A.V., Hernandez-Perez, F.E., van Oijen,
J., Mokhov, A.V., de Goey, P. and Levinsky, H.B. Numerical and
experimental investigations on the influence of preheating and
dilution on transition of laminar coflow diffusion flames to Mild
combustion regime. Combust. Flame Vol. 160, 2359-2374 (2013).
[4] Abtahizadeh, S.E., Oijen, J.A. van, Goey, L.P.H. de (2012). Numerical
study of Mild combustion with entrainment of burned gas into oxidizer
and/or fuel streams. Combustion and Flame, 159(6), 2155-2165.
[5] Sepman, A.V., Abtahizadeh, S.E., Mokhov, A.V., Levinsky, H.B. and de
Goey, P. Numerical and experimental studies of the NO formation in
laminar coflow diffusion flames on their transition to MILD combustion
regime. Combust. Flame. Vol. 160, 1364-1372 (2013).
[6] Mokhov, A.V., Smirnov, B.M., Dutka, M., Vainchtein, D., Levinsky, H.B.
and De Hosson, J. Th.M. Formation of chain aggregates in external
electric field. Chem. Phys. Lett. Vol. 570, 104-108 (2013).
10 Computed instantaneous
distributions of temperature
field using FGM-LES-PDF
model with non-unity Lewis
numbers for Case DJHC-00H2.
These snapshots show the
localized temperature rise
corresponding to formation of
ignition kernels.
different from those in the JHC burners. For instance,
Reynolds numbers might be larger which can increase
turbulence intensities. Furthermore, entrainment of burned
gas into the fuel stream shifts most reactive mixture
fraction toward the fuel stream. In this condition, turbulent
structures have a larger impact on ignition events resulting
in an increased role of turbulence transport with respect
to molecular diffusion. In the future research, experimental
and numerical investigations of these conditions are indis-
pensable in order to move toward more practical situations.
[7] Sepman, A.V., Toro, V., Mokhov, A.V. and Levinsky, H.B. Determination
of temperature and concentrations of main components in flames by
fitting measured Raman spectra. J. Appl. Phys. B, Vol. 112, 135-147
(2013).
[8] Sepman, A.V., Mokhov, A.V., and Levinsky, H.B. Spatial structure and
NO formation of a laminar methane–nitrogen jet in hot coflow under
MILD conditions: A spontaneous Raman and LIF study. Fuel, 103,
pp.705-710 (2013).
[9] Sepman, A.V., Mokhov, A.V. and Levinsky H.B. The effects of the
hydrogen addition on the HCN profiles in fuel-rich-premixed,
burner-stabilized C1-C3 alkane flames. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy,
vol. 36, no. 21, pp. 13831-13837 (2011).
[10] Sepman, A.V., Mokhov, A.V. and Levinsky H.B. Extending the predictions
of chemical mechanisms for hydrogen combustion: comparison of
predicted and measured flame temperatures in burner-stabilized 1D
flames. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 36, pp. 9298-9303 (2011).
[11] Sepman, A.V., Mokhov, A.V., and Levinsky, H.B. The effects of hydrogen
addition on NO formation in atmospheric-pressure, fuel-rich-premixed,
burner-stabilized methane, ethane and propane flames. Int. J. Hydrogen
Acknowledgement: The authors would like to thank STW for sponsoring this project
under the CCC program project number: 10414.
Schone en zuinige verbranding 11

BIOxyFuel: Torrefied Biomass Combustion
under Oxy-fuel Conditions in Coal Fired
Power Plants
Projectleaders: prof.dr.ir. G. Brem, dr. C.W.M. van der
Geld, prof.dr.ir. B.J. Geurts, prof.dr. L.P.H. de Goey,
prof.dr. J.G.M. Kuerten, prof.dr.ir. Th.H. van der Meer,
dr.ir. J.A. van Oijen
The objective of the BIOxyFuel project was to increase
understanding and predictive capabilities of torrefied
biomass combustion at high co-firing rates under oxy-fuel
conditions in coal fired power plants. The combination of
biomass co-firing and oxy-fuel power plants will have a
double effect on the reduction of CO2. In fact, the combi-
nation of oxy-fuel combustion and biomass could be used
as a sink for CO2. The research program is carried out for
different types of biomass and torrefied biomass as from
an economic perspective fuel flexibility is essential because
of fluctuating availability and prices of the different
biomass streams. Industrial partners involved in the project
were NVV, KEMA, and TSA (electricity power companies).
12 Brandbrief STW 2015
Research method
The scientific results of the research program are the
development of new and unique experimental facilities in
The Netherlands, advanced mathematical models for the
key processes at different scales (particle, flow, furnace),
and model validation using data from full-scale plants.
Results
In the experimental phase the reactivity, burnout, and
emissions of raw and torrefied biomass are measured. In
this way more insight has been obtained in the dominating
combustion mechanisms of coal/biomass-mixtures under
both air-blown and oxyfuel conditions.
Parallel to the experimental work different models have
been developed, ranging from a single particle model,
to a particle-laden turbulent flow model and a furnace or
full-scale model. The single particle biomass combustion
model has been validated using experimental findings
and integrated in the particle-laden turbulent flow simula-
tions under pyrolysis conditions. These models have been
integrated in a furnace model, that is validated against
experimental data obtained from measurement campaigns
at a full-scale power plant while co-firing biomass.
The BIOxyFuel project has contributed to the CCC programme
by developing a new combustion concept, reducing unwanted
emissions (CO2, NOx), giving insight in a higher fuel flexi-
bility (different types of torrefied biomass/coal mixtures),
improving the potential use of sustainable fuels (biomass).
 2

Publications

[1] Haseli, Y., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de (2013). A quasisteady analysis [8] Haseli, Y., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de (2011). Numerical study of

of oxy-fuel combustion of a wood char particle. Combustion Science the conversion time of single pyrolyzing biomass particles at high
and Technology, 185(4), 533-547. in Web of Science heating conditions. Chemical Engineering Journal, 169(1-3), 299-312;
in Web of Science
[2] Haseli, Y., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de (2013). Reduced model for

combustion of a small biomass particle at high operating temperatures. [9] E. Russo, J.G.M. Kuerten, B.J. Geurts, Delay of biomass pyrolysis by

Bioresource Technology, 131, 397-404; in Web of Science gas-particle interaction, J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 110, 88-99 (2014)

[3] Haseli, Y., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de (2012). Predicting the pyrolysis [10] E. Russo, J.G.M. Kuerten, B.J. Geurts. C.W.M. van der Geld, Water droplet

of single biomass particles based on a time and space integral method. condensation and evaporation in turbulent channel flow, J. Fluid Mech.,
Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 96(July), 126-138; in Web of 749, 666-700 (2014)
Science
[11] E.M.Gucho, E.A.Bramer and G.Brem,” Experimental studies of torrefied
[4] Haseli, Y., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de (2012). A simplified pyrolysis
biomass co-firing with coal in drop tube furnace, June 06, 2011,
model of a biomass particle based on infinitesimally thin reaction front 19th European Biomass Conference and Exhibition, Berlin
approximation. Energy & Fuels, 26(6), 3230-3243; in Web of Science
[12] E.M.Gucho, K.Shazhad, E.A.Bramer and G.Brem,” Parametric study
[5] Haseli, Y., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de (2012). Analytical solutions
on the torrefaction of beech wood and miscanthus for co-firing
for prediction of the ignition time of wood particles based on a time application.”, ToTeM 37, 22-23 September 2011, Technical University
and space integral method. Thermochimica Acta, 548, 65-75; in Web of Wroclaw, Poland
of Science
[13] E.M.Gucho, E.A.Bramer and G.Brem, ‘Áir and oxyfuel combustion of
[6] Haseli, Y., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de (2011). A detailed one-dimen-
torrefied biomass in new spiral combustion reactor’, 3rd Oxyfuel
sional model of combustion of a woody biomass particle. Bioresource Combustion Conference, 9-13 September 2013, Ponferrada, Spain
Technology, 102(20), 9772-9782; in Web of Science

[7] Haseli, Y., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de (2011). Modeling biomass

particle pyrolysis with temperature-dependent heat of reactions. Journal

of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 90(2), 140-154; in Web of Science

Schone en zuinige verbranding 13


XCiDE: Crossing the Combustion
modes in Diesel Engines
Projectleaders: dr.ir. L.M.T. Somers, dr. N.J. Dam,
prof.dr. L.P.H. de Goey
Ever increasing demands from legislation forces OEM’s
of HD Diesel engines to apply EGR (Exhaust Gas
Recirculation) often in combination with after treatment
systems (SCR, DPF). This will induce a so-called fuel
penalty and increases the cost of the powertrain.
Hence the active research in intrinsically clean combustion
concepts that apply a more premixed type of combustion
(HCCI, PCCI). Unequivocally these concepts try to create
a more or less homogeneous charge but still rely on
auto-ignition. To achieve this, injection of fuel has to be
separated from the ignition event allowing ample mixing
time. Principally separation can be obtained by lowering
the temperature and/or the reactivity of the fuel.
The goal of the project is to
RCCI
Dual-fuel
PPC
Single-fuel
1 2
14 Brandbrief STW 2015
–D etermine the load range for PCCI with conventional
diesel fuels
– Similar but with alternative (high-octane) fuels
–D evelop a combustion model in a CFD setting that
naturally takes the fuel reactivity into account
– Build a knowledge base on new combustion concepts
Research method
To adequately determine concept boundaries a special
engine set-up is used. It is based on a HD diesel engine
which is adapted such that one-cylinder is separated
from the rest. The test-cylinder has a separate intake and
exhaust allowing for flexible setting of temperature, boost
pressure and EGR percentage (up to 75%). The fuel injec-
tion equipment applies a modern common-rail system able
to deliver pressures up to 3500 bar (mostly limited
by the injector) and is freely programmable. All exhaust
emission are measured. In figure 1 a photograph of the
engine is depicted.
The numerical approach is based on the efficient FGM
methodology. This methodology is a chemical reduction
method that is based on a so-called ‘flamelet approach’
in combination with a tabulation method. In this project
the method is extended for modelling engine combustion,
including features like ignition for diffusive and pre-mixed
combustion of large alkane (i.e. automotive) fuels.
Results
First experiments on PCCI applying regular diesel fuel
revealed that the applicable load range is small and
introduces a fuel penalty. The compression needs to be
lowered and high levels of EGR are inevitable to reach the
necessary separation between injection and ignition. This
is mainly due to the low resistance of diesel fuel, as it is
designed to be, against auto-ignition. A promising path to
a PCCI concept is proven to be a change in fuel reactivity.
Two prevailing implementations to reach that currently
exist: RCCI and PPC. RCCI is a dual-fuel concept and PPC
applies a single fuel (blend) with a moderate but much
higher octane number than diesel (see figure 2).
In contrast to normal dual fuel applications in RCCI the low
octane fuel (diesel) is injected early to ensure separation
between ignition and injection. Initial experiments show
the potential of the approach for a reduction of NOx by
one order of magnitude compared to regular diesel at similar
EGR levels (figure 3). In fact the soot and NOx emissions
1 The single cylinder HD
diesel engine at the TU/e
(Cyclops).
2 Hi-octane PCCI concepts.
 3 4

5 6

3 Specific NOx emissions 5 Prediction of 50% heat

are below EUROVI limits without a DPF and after treat-
(logarithmic scale!) at medium release (CA50) as a function
ment system. The fuel economy has improved by nearly load at different timings . The of gasoline percentage in
10% which shows its potential towards CO2 reduction. diamonds are results from RCCI experiment.
an RCCI experiment applying
90% gasoline/10% diesel. 6 CO mass-fraction of a
The RCCI concept also has its drawbacks mainly due to
PCCI case running on regular
trapped fuel in crevices and ‘overleaning’. This results in 4 Effect of fuel pres- diesel depicting highest levels
relatively high CO and UHC (Unburned HydroCarbons) emis- sure on soot emissions. Three in the crevice region.
naphtha blends in the PPC
sions compared to conventional diesel combustion (CDC).
concept compared to regular
diesel in a CDC concept.
The PPC concepts does not suffer from high UHC and CO
emissions because of the fact the fuel can be targeted
better towards the piston bowl. It was found that the After that it has been applied to a RCCI study with varying
specific composition of the fuel blend is not really gasoline content (figure 5).
important but the performance is mainly determined by
the Fuel octane number. A such even Naphtha fuels and The results are promising as the method predicts the same
low injection pressures can be used as shown in figure 4. trend as the experim-ents show. The big advantage of the
Consequently cheaper injection equipment can be applied numerical app-roach is that it is now possible to investigate
and the demand for high grade fuels can be minimized. where exactly the emissions are created. Detailed informa-
Note that this on itself can lead to CO2 reduction at the tion as presented in figure 6 can pinpoint exact measures to
production side of the fuel as well. deal with the specific problems of the new concepts.

As these concepts heavily rely details of the mixing process
and combustion computational fluid dynamics (CFD) will be
a necessary tool to optimize these concepts in relation to
the fuel composition. As fuel details are important chemical
kinetic schemes need to be incorporated in an efficient
way. In this project the FGM methodology is extended to
CDC and RCCI/PPC combustion. To validate the approach it
has been extensively compared to the detailed database
of the Engine Combustion Network (www.sandia.gov/ecn),
The program has come to the conclusion that these new
concepts pro-vide a way to develop clean and efficient
engines. A larger follow-up of the project is currently
formulated in which DAF, TNO and Shell will participate
actively. Clearly the optimization of the fuel together with
engine technology offers a win-win situation to reduce the
carbon footprint of the transport sector considerably.

Schone en zuinige verbranding 15

 Journal Publications
[1] Egüz, U., Leermakers, C.A.J., Somers, L.M.T. & Goey, L.P.H. de (2014). Mode-
ling of PCCI combustion with FGM tabulated chemistry. Fuel, 118, 91-99.
[2] Egüz, U., Ayyapureddi, S., Bekdemir, C., Somers, L.M.T. & Goey, L.P.H. de
(2013). Manifold resolution study of the FGM method for an igniting
diesel spray. Fuel, 113, 228-238.
[3] Egüz, U., Maes, N.C.J., Leermakers, C.A.J., Somers, L.M.T. & Goey, L.P.H. de
(2013). Predicting auto-ignition characteristics of RCCI combustion
using a multi-zone model. International Journal of Automotive Techno-
logy, 14(5), 693-699.
[4] Egüz, U., Leermakers, C.A.J., Somers, L.M.T. & Goey, L.P.H. de (2013).
Premixed charge compression ignition combustion modeling with a
multi-zone approach including inter-zonal mixing. Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile
Engineering, 227(9), 1313-1324.
[5] Egüz, U., Ayyapureddi, S., Bekdemir, C., Somers, L.M.T. & Goey, L.P.H. de
(2012). Modeling fuel spray auto-ignition using the FGM approach:
effect of tabulation method. SAE International Journal of Engines:
2012-01-0157
[6] Egüz, U., Somers, L.M.T., Leermakers, C.A.J. & Goey, L.P.H. de (2011). Multi-
zone modelling of PCCI combustion. International Journal of Vehicle
Design, 55(1), 76-90
[7] U. Egüz, L.M.T. Somers, C.A.J. Leermakers, L.P.H. de Goey, Multi-zone mo-
delling of PCCI combustion, Int. J. of Vehicle Design, 55(1), 76-90, (2011)
[8] C.A.J. Leermakers, M.P.B. Musculus, In-cylinder soot precursor growth in a
low-temperature combustion diesel engine: Laser-induced fluorescence
of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, Proceedings of the Combustion
Institute, Available online 19 July 2014, ISSN 1540-7489, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.proci.2014.06.101
[9] C.A.J. Leermakers, P.C. Bakker, B.C.W. Nijssen, L.M.T. Somers, B.H. Johans-
son, Low octane fuel composition effects on the load range capability
of partially premixed combustion, Fuel, Volume 135, 1 November
2014, Pages 210-222, ISSN 0016-2361, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
fuel.2014.06.044
[10] Leermakers, C.A.J., Luijten, C.C.M., Somers, L.M.T., Goey, L.P.H. de &
Albrecht, B.A. (2013). Experimental study on the impact of operating
conditions on PCCI combustion. International Journal of Vehicle Design,
62(1), 1-20.
[11] Leermakers, C.A.J., Bakker, P.C., Somers, L.M.T., Goey, L.P.H. de & Johansson,
B.H. (2013). Commercial Naphtha blends for partially premixed combustion.
SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants, 6(1):2013-01-1681
[12] Leermakers, C.A.J., Bakker, P.C., Somers, L.M.T., Goey, L.P.H. de & Johansson,
B.H. (2013). Butanol-diesel blends for partially premixed combustion. SAE
International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants, 6(1):2013-01-1683
[13] Leermakers, C.A.J., Somers, L.M.T. & Johansson, B.H. (2012). Combustion
phasing controllability with dual fuel injection timings. SAE International
Journal of Engines, 2012:01-1575
[14] Leermakers, C.A.J., Luijten, C.C.M., Somers, L.M.T., Kalghatgi, G.T. &
Albrecht, B.A. (2011). Experimental study of fuel composition impact
on PCCI combustion in a heavy-duty diesel engine. SAE International
Journal of Engines, 2011-01-1351-1/20.
[15] Leermakers, C.A.J., Berge, B. van den, Luijten, C.C.M., Somers, L.M.T., Goey,
L.P.H. de & Albrecht, B.A. (2011). Gasoline–diesel dual fuel : effect of
injection timing and fuel balance. SAE International Journal of Engines,
4(3):2011-01-2437
16 Brandbrief STW 2015
[16] C.A.J. Leermakers, C.C.M. Luijten, L.M.T. Somers, G.T. Kalghatgi, B.A.
Albrecht, Experimental Study of Fuel Composition Impact on PCCI
Combustion in a Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine, SAE Technical Papers, -,
2011-01-1351, (2011)
[17] M.D. Boot, C.C.M. Luijten, L.M.T. Somers, U. Egüz, D.D.T.M. van Erp, B.A.
Albrecht and R.S.G. Baert, ‘Uncooled EGR as a Means of Limiting
Wall-Wetting under Early DI Conditions’, SAE Technical Papers, 2009,
2009-01-0665.
[18] M.D. Boot, C.C.M. Luijten, L.M.T. Somers, U. Egüz, D.D.T.M. van Erp, B.A.
Albrecht, R.S.G. Baert, Uncooled EGR as a Means of Limiting Wall-Wetting
under Early Direct Injection Conditions, in Homogeneous Charge
Compression Ignition Engines, 2009; Editors: SAE, 10.4271/2009-01-
0665, SAE International, Book Chapter ISBN 978-0-7680-2138-7 (2009)
Conference papers
[19] U. Egüz, C.A.J. Leermakers, L.M.T. Somers and L.P.H. de Goey (2011),
‘Preliminary analysis of soot and UHC emissions under PCCI conditions’,
Proceedings of European Combustion Meeting (ECM2011), 28 June-
1 July 2011, Cardiff, Wales.
[20] U. Egüz, C. Bekdemir, L.M.T. Somers and L.P.H. de Goey (2011), ‘Study of
PCCI modeling with the FGM approach’, Proceedings of Towards Clean
Diesel Engines (TCDE), 8-9 June 2011, Chester, United Kingdom.
[21] U. Egüz and L.M.T. Somers (2011), ‘Modeling of PCCI Combustion
with FGM Approach’, Oral Presentation, International Conference on
Numerical Combustion (ICNC), 27-29 April, 2011, Corfu, Greece.
[22] U. Egüz, C.A.J. Leermakers, L.M.T. Somers and L.P.H. de Goey (2010)
‘Multi-zone Modelling of PCCI Combustion with CFD Coupling for
Stratification’, Proceedings of Towards Sustainable Combustion
(Speic2010), 16-18 June 2010, Tenerife, Spain.
Conference posters
[23] L.M.T Somers, C.A.J. Leermakers and U. Egüz (2010), ‘Crossing the
Combustion Modes in Diesel Engines’, Oral Presentation, Combura 2010,
12-13 October 2010, Maastricht, the Netherlands.
[24] C.A.J. Leermakers, B.A. Albrecht, L.M.T. Somers, C.C.M. Luijten, Euro VI
without fuel penalty?, in 7th International Automotive Congress.nl;
Helmond, Netherlands, Conference Poster (2010)
[25] B. Berge, van den , C.A.J. Leermakers, L.M.T. Somers, C.C.M. Luijten,
L.P.H. de Goey, Impact of fuels with lower reactivity on PCCI
combustion in a heavy-duty engine, in Combura; Maastricht,
Netherlands, Conference Poster (2010)
[26] C.A.J. Leermakers, L.M.T. Somers, C.C.M. Luijten, L.P.H. de Goey,
Euro VI without fuel penalty?, in Combura; Maastricht, Netherlands,
Conference Poster (2010)
[27] C.A.J. Leermakers, R.P.C. Zegers, L.M.T. Somers, C.C.M. Luijten, N.J. Dam,
L.P.H. de Goey, High speed combustion imaging, in Combura; Maastricht,
Netherlands, Conference Poster (2010)
Acknowledgement: The authors would like to thank STW for sponsoring
this project under the CCC program project number: 10417 and DAF, Delphi,
Shell and Avantium for their contributions.

HiTAC: Heavy fuel-oil
combustion in a HiTAC boiler
Projectleaders: prof.dr.ir. Th.H. van der Meer,
prof.dr. D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, dr.ir. M.J. Tummers
PhD’s: S.L. Zhu, H.R. Correia Rodrigues
The aim of this project was to improve the efficiency and
reduce NOx and CO emissions of heavy fuel-oil combustion
in industrial boilers by applying “High Temperature Air
Combustion (HiTAC)”. HiTAC relies on rapid dilution of fuel
and combustion air with combustion products before the
combustion reactions take place. In the case of liquid fuels
this leads to the question whether the entrainment rate
of an evaporating fuel spray can be high enough to reach
sufficiently dilute conditions of the fuel. A very detailed
experimental study was performed at Delft University
of Technology of spray flames of light fuel-oils (ethanol
and acetone) in hot-diluted co-flow conditions. In parallel
field tests were performed at Stork Thermeq in a 9 MW
test boiler with spray flames of heavy fuel-oil with hot-
diluted combustion air. The fuel-oil for these experiments
was provided and characterized by Shell Global solutions
1 Ethanol spray flame
1
in hot diluted co-flow.
specifically for this project. Numerical modeling of both the
Delft laboratory scale flame as well as the Stork industrial
test boiler were done at the University of Twente with the
aim of coupling both experiments and understanding the
underlying processes. Finally Stork developed water-steam
cycles optimized for the application in combination with
HiTAC combustion
Research method
A laboratory test burner was developed for a spray flame
in hot diluted co-flow. Figure 1 shows an ethanol flame
from this burner in a co-flow with a temperature of 1300
K and an oxygen concentration of 9.3%. Several numerical
methods were used for detailed in-flame measurements,
such as: high speed visualization of the liquid break-up
process; Phase Doppler anemometry (PDA) for simultane-
ous measurements of droplet velocity and size statistics;
coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS) for
gas-phase temperature statistics and laser Doppler
anemometry for co-flow velocity measurements.
A numerical model was developed within Ansys-Fluent
with a pressure-swirl atomizer model including coalescence,
secondary break-up and evaporation of the droplets, a
laminar flamelet model for combustion, the discrete
ordinate models for radiation and the k- model for
turbulence. This model was first used to simulate a well-
documented spray flame from literature, the so-called
NIST flame. Then the model was used for simulations of
the Delft laboratory flame and finally for the Stork test
boiler. For the last simulations the Eddy Dissipation
model was used as the combustion model in stead of
the flamelet model.
Schone en zuinige verbranding 17
 In the Stork 9 MW test facility experiments were conducted
under conditions of elevated combustion air temperature,
high amount of flue gas recirculation and fuel staging,
aiming at more uniform temperature distributions
throughout the combustion chamber. Conventional gas
analysers were used to monitor NOx, CO and O2 in the flue
gases.
Results
When comparing conventional ethanol spray flames
with ethanol spray flames in hot-diluted co-flow the
results of this project show that for the flames in
hot-diluted co-flows:
1. The mean flame temperatures are more uniform with
less steep temperature gradients. With an oxygen
concentration of only 6% the numerical simulations
showed that the difference between peak temperature
and co-flow temperature drops to about 200 K.
2. The maxima of the mean flame temperature are
similar or considerably lower, depending on temperature
and O2 concentration of the co-flow. Also the NOx
concentrations were reduced considerably. Figure 2
shows computed results of the peak mean temperature
under various co-flow conditions.
3. The turbulent temperature fluctuations are much lower.
The measurements showed maximal temperature
fluctuations of 700 K in the conventional ethanol flame
and maximal temperature fluctuations of 200 K in the
flame with a co-flow temperature of 1200 K and an
oxygen concentration of 9.2%.
4. From the experiments on the lab scale burner it was
concluded that small droplets are quickly vaporized and
18 Brandbrief STW 2015
the combustion process is mainly depending on the
mixing of the fuel vapor with the entrained flow and the
ignition delay time. Higher co-flow temperatures leads
do a reduction of the flame lift-off height and an earlier
formation of intermediate species leading to an increase
of the peak temperature in lower axial position.
From these observations it is clear that the conditions
in the flames in a hot-diluted co-flow are close to HiTAC
conditions.
Although experimental restrictions did not make it possible
to reach HiTAC conditions in the field tests with the 9 MW
boiler, the results from the field test and the results from
the numerical simulations on the same boiler are promising.
The experiments showed that flue gas recirculation as
well as fuel staging led to a decrease in NOx by 20%. The
combination of flue gas recirculation and fuel staging
decreased NOx by 30%.
Simulation results in the test boiler showed that an
increase of the temperature of the combustion air from
373 K to 746 K leads to a higher peak temperature in
the combustion chamber from 2240 K to 2390 K.
A reduction of the O2 concentration of the combustion
air from 23.065 wt% to 11.5325 wt% results in more
uniform temperature distribution with a peak temperature
of 1510 K. Further numerical investigation was done
with recycling various ratios of flue gas into the primary
and secondary air respectively for introducing various
O2 concentration conditions for the combustion air flow.
The predicted temperature difference between the average
2 Model predictions of
peak temperature as a func-
2
tion of co-flow conditions.
temperature and the peak temperature showed that the
case with the lowest O2 concentration in the primary air
has the smallest temperature difference in the boiler. It
was also shown that besides thermal NOx, fuel NOx is an
important contributor to NOx formation in heavy fuel-oil
combustion. By introducing flue gas recirculation, thermal
NOx can be reduced to a very low level, leaving the fuel
NOx playing the dominant role. The interaction between
soot and radiation also showed considerable influence on
the predicted temperature profiles. In the case with hot
combustion air, the peak temperature was reduced by 140
K and the NOx emission was reduced to about one fourth.
The results from this project are promising with respect
to HiTAC combustion of heavy-fuel oil in boilers. The next
step is to further develop this boiler concept by realizing
optimal internal recirculation in the combustion chamber.
For this reason Stork will use numerical simulations, which
will be validated with experiments in a new test boiler,
which is currently under development

Publications

[1] S. Zhu, D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, and T.H. van der Meer, [9] Hugo Correia Rodrigues, Mark J. Tummers, Eric H. van Veen,

Numerical study of a methanol spray flame. 5th European Combustion Dirk J.E.M. Roekaerts, Spray flame structure in conventional and
Meeting, T. Griffiths (Ed.), Cardiff, UK, 2011, paper 067, 6 pages hot-diluted combustion regime, Combustion and Flame, 2014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2014.07.033
[2] S. Zhu, D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, and T.H. van der Meer,
[10] L. Ma, H.R. Correia Rodrigues , S. Zhu , M.J. Tummers , D.J.E.M. Roekaerts,
Numerical simulation of a turbulent methanol spray flame using
the Euler-Lagrange method and the steady laminar flamelet model. Modelling of Delft Spray-in-Hot-Coflow flame with steady flamelet
In Proceedings of the Mediterranean Combustion Symposium. and FGM, in Book of Abstracts of the 23rd Biennial Meeting of the
Chia Laguna, Sardinia, Italy, 2011 Belgian Section of the Combustion Institute, Brussels, 27-28 May,
2014, 2 pages
[3] H. Rodrigues, M.J. Tummers, D.J.E.M. Roekaerts,
[11] Shanglong Zhu, Dirk Roekaerts, Artur Pozarlik, Theo van der Meer,
Experiments on turbulent ethanol reacting sprays in HiTAC
conditions, 12th International Conference on Liquid Atomization Eulerian-Lagrngian RANS model simulations of the NIST turbulent
and Spray Systems, Heidelberg, September, 2-6, 2012 methanol spray flame, submitted to Combustion Science and
Technology
[4] S. Zhu, D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, A.K.Pozarlik, B. Venneker, T.H. van der Meer,
[12] Shanglong Zhu, Dirk Roekaerts, Artur Pozarlik, Hugo Rodriguez,
Numerical investigation towards a HiTAC condition in a 9MW heavy
fuel-oil boiler, 6th European Combustion Meeting, Lund, Sweden, Theo van der Meer, Numerical investigation towards HiTAC conditions
25-28th June, 2013. in laboratory-scale ethanol spray combustion, in preparation

[5] L. Ma, S. Zhu, H.R.C. Rodrigues, M.J. Tummers, T.H. van der Meer [13] Hugo Rodrigues, Spray combustion in moderate and intense low-oxygen

and D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, Numerical investigation of ethanol spray-in- conditions. An experimental study, PhD thesis, 2015, TU Delft.
hot-coflow flame using steady flamelet model, 8th Mediterranean
Combustion Symposium, Çesme Izmir, Turkey, September 8-13, 2013,
Paper EGTSC-13, 13 pages, Editors: Nevin Selcuk, Federico Beretta,
Mohy S. Mansour, and Andrea d’Anna. Publisher: International Centre
For Heat and Mass Transfer, METU, Ankara, Turkey

[6] H.R.C.Rodrigues, M.J. Tummers, D.J.E.M. Roekaerts,

Turbulent Spray Combustion in hot-diluted co-flow, 9th Asia-Pacific

Conference on Combustion, Gyeongju Hilton, Gyeongju, Korea,
19-22 May 2013, 4 pp

[7] H.R.C. Rodrigues, M.J. Tummers and D.J.E.M. Roekaerts ,

Turbulent Spray Combustion of ethanol and acetone flames in flameless

conditions, In: European Combustion Meeting – 2013 Paper P3-80,
6 pp, June 25-28, 2013, Lund, Sweden, ISBN 978-91-637-2151-9

[8] H. Correia Rodrigues, M.J. Tummers, E.H. van Veen, D.J.E.M. Roekaerts,

Effects of coflow temperature and composition on ethanol spray

flames in hot-diluted coflow, Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow, 2014,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2014.10.006

Schone en zuinige verbranding 19


ULRICO: Ultra Rich Combustion of
Natural Gas to Syngas
Projectleaders: dr.ir. J.B.W. Kok,
Prof.dr. D.J.E.M. Roekaerts
A major issue in Partial Combustion plants is to achieve an
optimal syngas output composition, with low soot content
and small combustor volume. These are conflicting demands
and the design needs to be optimized with a view to
the downstream process. To achieve high hydrogen and
carbon monoxide concentrations a high combustor volume
is required. But this will result in high soot content of the
product gas. This will lead to fouling of downstream heat
exchanger systems and hence to loss of reliability and
high costs of maintenance. Gasification plant users and
manufacturers will use the knowledge from this project
to improve existing plants and optimize designs for new
plants. With the expected increasing demand for new fuels
like synthetic Diesel, syngas and hydrogen the proposed
project will render crucial information and design tools
on chemical reaction processes and soot formation in
ultra rich conditions. Both experimental tests at elevated
20 Brandbrief STW 2015
pressure and CFD modeling will be employed. The work
is carried out by PhD student Marc Woolderink at the
University of Twente and PostDoc Michael Stoellinger
at the Technical University of Delft, supervised by Prof.
Dirk Roekaerts (TUD) and Dr. Jim Kok (UT). The work was
supported by the industrial partners Shell Global Solutions
(financial support and engineering guidance) and ANSYS
Europe (CFD modeling support).
Research method
A rich combustion test rig at elevated pressure was realized
at the UT. Numerical modelling of the turbulent rich
combustion process of perfectly premixed natural gas and
oxidizer to syngas, and of a nonpremixed system with pro-
duct gas recirculation was performed at both UT and TUD.
AT the UT The gaseous chemistry is described by a reaction
progress variable based combustion model with tabulated
detailed chemistry. The soot formation and radiative heat
loss of the gases and the soot particles is taken into
account by 2 extra transport equations. All models are
implemented in the commercially available CFD package
ANSYS-CFX and applied on a premixed reactor design and
a nonpremixed design with product gas back mixing.
At the TUD a simple semi-empirical soot model based on
the soot number density and soot mass concentration
is adopted in a transported PDF method for turbulent
diffusion flames. The gas phase chemistry is reduced by a
flamelet generated manifold (FGM) based on the mixture
1 Schematic cross section
of reactor.
2 Partial oxidation reactor
experimental setup.
1 2
 fraction, progress variable and enthalpy loss. To account
for the radiative heat transfer, the Reynolds averaged
radiative transfer equation (RTE) is solved by means of a
discrete transfer method. The proposed modeling approach
is validated in simulations of two turbulent non-premixed
methane-air flames at 1 bar and 3 bar pressure.
Results
Experiments
In this research measurements were done on the setup
with a reactor with swirl stabilized flame (Figs 1,2) at
several pressures and at equivalence ratios 2 to 4.
A sample flow was extracted from the reactor downstream
the oxidation front. This flow was quenched and diluted
rapidly in order to avoid changes in chemical composition
and soot particle growth and coagulation. For this
application a special dilution system with dilution factor
104 was developed in the project. Upstream of the dilution
step the gas composition was analysed with a gas
chromatograph and downstream the dilution step, the
soot concentration and size distribution (2-200 nm)was
measured with a Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer.
Previous experiments with a very similar setup and under
the same conditions were done by Albrecht et al. [1] but
without measurement of soot particle concentration. In
figure 3 the experimental concentration measurements
are shown. All CO concentration measurements show a
generally decreasing trend with increasing equivalence
ratios from F=2.5 to F=4.0. Table 1 gives the measured
species concentrations at an equivalence ratio F of 3 and
their values at 50 ms in Chemkin PSR, Chemkin Premix
and chemical equilibrium. It can be concluded that the dry
mole fraction of CO measured in the produced syngas is
approximately 0.16, which is significantly lower than the
equilibrium value of 0.24. This is a clear indication that the
mixture would move more in the direction of equilibrium if
the residence time in the reactor would have been longer.
This also explains the decreasing CO concentration at high
equivalence ratio’s, which is contradictory with equilibrium
data. At high equivalence ratio the chemical reactions slow
down, necessitating an increased residence time to reach
equilibrium. This emphasizes the need of an accurate
chemical activity prediction far from equilibrium.
Simulations
The CFI model was applied on a premixed natural gas
flame, Nitrox40 as oxidizer, a preheat temperature of 573
K, equivalence ratio of 2.5 and a pressure of 4.0 bar. The
axial velocity flow field shows a central recirculation area.
The reaction progress variable shows a delay by chemical
reaction kinetics after a steep increase in the flame front,
steadily rising throughout the entire reactor until it reaches
CCFI =0.88 at the outlet. The soot particle number density
increases the most in the flame front, keeps increasing
for a certain length before decreasing towards the outlet.
In Figure 5 the axial profiles of CO, H2, C2H2 and the
temperature of the CFI simulation have been plot. It can be
seen that the CFI model is able to predict the endothermic
reforming processes that are taking place downstream
of the flame front in ultra-rich combustion. The decrease
in temperature after the flame front due to reforming
reactions is visible, as well as the steady increase of CO
and H2 and decrease of C2H2.
3 Comparison of measured
CO concentration in syngas
produces on basis of natural
gas/Nitrox.
table Measured and predicted
species concentrations [vol %]
in dried produced syngas.
Schone en zuinige verbranding 21
 4

4 Predicted soot particle

number density.

5 Predicted axial profile of

temperature and H2, CO and
5
C2H2 mass fraction.

Comparison with experimental data shows a good match Publications

with predictions for the gas mass fractions of major
[1] Stoellinger, M., Roekaerts D., PDF modelling of soot formation in
species H2, CO and CH4. The concentration of C2H2 is
turbulent non-premixed flames using tabulated chemistry, European
overpredicted, as well as the amount of soot produced. Combustion Meeting, 2013.
This is probably due to the one way coupling of the
[2] Woolderink, M.H.F., Kok, J.B.W., Ultrarich combustion of natural gas
gaseous chemical reaction model to the solid phase
to syngas, GT2011-46383, Proceedings ASME Turbo Expo 2011,
soot production model. Consumption of C2H2 by soot
Vancouver, Canada, 2011
production is not accounted for. In addition there are large
[3] M.H.F. Woolderink, J.B.W. Kok, Modeling Ultra Rich Combustion Of
uncertainties in the soot model, that also need much
Natural Gas Using A Reaction Progress Variable, Proc. 13th International
better to be taken care of. The project has resulted in
Conf Numerical Combustion, April 27-29, 2011, Corfu, Greece.
improved insight in the processes of oxidation and soot
formation at rich conditions, and in a set of CFD design [4] Kok J.B.W., Albrecht, B.A., Woolderink M.H.F., Non-adiabatic turbulent

tools. In particular the modeling of soot formation and ultra rich combustion of natural gas, proc. 9th International Conference
on Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics, 16 – 18 July
its coupling to gaseous chemistry is shown to need 2012, Malta, ISBN: 978-1-86854-986-3, 2012.
improvement. This work will lead to cleaner and more
[5] M.H.F. Woolderink, J.B.W. Kok, Modeling of and experiments on ultra-
reliable fuel gas to syngas reactors, with application to
rich combustion and soot formation, to be submitted to Combustion
Gas To Liquid processes and steam reformers for hydrogen
and Flame 2015
production.
[6] M.H.F. Woolderink, J.B.W. Kok, Ultra-rich distributed oxidation combustor:

numerical modeling and measurements, to be submitted to Combustion

Science and Technology, 2015.

Acknowledgment: The work in this paper was performed with the support
of the STW-project 10420.

22 Brandbrief STW 2015


MoST: Multi-scale modification of swirling
combustion for optimized gas turbines
Projectleaders: dr.ir. R.J.M. Bastiaans,
prof.dr.ir. B.J. Geurts, prof.dr.ir. Th.H. van der Meer
In the project MoST, a systematic investigation on how
to increase the efficiency of combustion conversion rate
in premixed flams through turbulence enhancement was
performed. Take for example the case of ultra-low NOx
burners, e.g., the low swirl burner (LSB), which operate in
the lean premixed regime. In these burners, the combus-
tion rate is very much dependent on the turbulence level
associated with the upstream flow mixture, such that
the resulting flame is often not very ‘intense’ under lean
conditions. To avoid such problem and to take the most
of the benefit of clean combustion processes, one could
enhance the mixing of the reactive mixture towards to the
flame front by adding turbulence in the core of the flame.
Based on similar procedures, this project focused on the
investigation of different strategies that either generate
turbulence efficiently or generate specific turbulence that
might be efficient for premixed combustion.
1 2
In the search of resonant turbulence conditions, i.e., tur-
bulence stimulation, in premixed combustion, the research
methods of project MoST were essentially based on
experimental and computational approaches. As a result,
a direct collaboration between the University of Twente
(UT), focusing on the experimental part, and the Eindhoven
University of Technology (TU/e) focusing on the numerical
part, was established.
Research method
Two different strategies to generate turbulence for a
low-swirl burner (Fig.1) were experimentally assessed
at UT. The first approach consist of a rotating active grid
composed out of two perforated disks. The second uses
fractal grids which are obtained by truncating a self-similar
fractal pattern at some level of refinement. Both type of
grids where successfully used before in wind-tunnel ex-
periments to elevate the turbulence levels. By performing
hot-wire measurements the enhancement of the turbu-
lence can be quantified. The resulting flame properties
were assessed using laser-induced fluorescence (LIF). By
capturing instantaneous cross-sections of the flame the
turbulent flame speed can be determined.
At TU/e, a suitable flow modulation strategy for turbu-
lence enhancement in premixed combustion was investi-
gated through numerical experiments focusing on the use
of spatially modulated turbulence. To cite an example, we
investigate the effects of a spatially modulated stoichio-
metric methane-air turbulent Bunsen flame using direct
numerical simulations (DNS) of the Navier-Stokes equati-
ons coupled with a tabulated chemistry technique, namely
the flamelet generated manifold (FGM). In these numerical
1 Photograph of low-swirl
flame.
2 Normalized local consump-
tion speed as function of the
normalized turbulent velocity
for the different flames.
Schone en zuinige verbranding 23

experiments, the premixed flame was agitated in space
and time by a hybrid forcing consisting on filtered small-
scale random perturbations and a coherent large-scale
spatially periodic modulation imposed at the inflow plane.
Results
The active grid measurements showed a promising
energy spectrum with distinct peaks. However, there was
no operating frequency identified where the turbulent
kinetic energy or the dissipation rate was maximized.
The variation in turbulent flame speed was of the same
order as the measurement uncertainty. Therefore, it could
not be concluded that the specific fluctuations introduced
by the active grid are directly causing additional wrinkling
of the flame front.
Concerning the fractals grids, first a rod-stabilized, V-shaped
flame was used as such stabilization mechanism allows
for considerable more variation in upstream fractal grid
geometry. By increasing the range of embedded scales
the turbulence is intensified. With respect to the reference
case the turbulence intensity can be more than quadrupled
while for the turbulent flame speed more than doubling is
observed. When the standard grid in a low-swirl burner was
replaced by fractal grids a similar increase in turbulence
24 Brandbrief STW 2015
3
3 3D snapshots view of
the flame front colored with
vorticity in the z-direction,
(left) reference flame (right)
example of a modulated
flame.
4 Results of the averaged
global surface wrinkling (left)
and (right) the averaged
flame height as a function of
the modulation scales. Both
results are normalized by the
corresponding properties
obtained for the unmodulated
4 reference flame.
and combustion is observed as for a V-shaped flame.
Figure 2 illustrates the enhancement of both variables.
There is an increase in flame surface density and a wide-
ning of the flame brush as well as much finer flame
wrinkling for the cases involving a multi-scale grid.
Since the range of embedded scales mainly controls the
turbulence intensity and the blockage ratio the low-swirl
stabilization, engineering fractal grids for low-swirl
combustion can be done with relative ease. It has also
been verified that the low NOx emissions, a key feature
of low-swirl burners, are not affected when using fractal
grids.
In terms of the numerical experiments we restrict to the
case where through a parametric variation using different
length-scales we study the global response of the
turbulent Bunsen flame. For a qualitative view on the
effect that the imposed modulations have on the flame
front, in Figure 3 we show snapshots of the Bunsen flame
for a reference case, i.e., without imposed modulation, and
with the applied perturbation.
To quantify such effects, we consider, as an example, the
effects of the modulation on the flame wrinkling. The
flame wrinkling is a property which measures the distor-
tions on the flame front by the turbulent motions and
consequently this property determine the flame surface
area of conversion. In Figure 4, we show quantitatively
the modulation effects on the surface wrinkling and the
flame height as a function of the length-scales used to
agitate the Bunsen flame. As can be observe, an optimum
enhancement of the conversion rate by a factor of 2 for
the surface wrinkling, relatively to a reference case, can be
obtained when large-length scales are used to modulate
the flame, i.e., low values of K.L, where K is the modulation
wave-number and L a characteristic length-scale.
In general, although restrict to an envelope flame type,
these results are in qualitative agreement with the
experimental results obtained at TU where a significant
enhancement of the global consumption speed of low
Publications
[1] A.A. Verbeek, Efficiently generated turbulence for an increased flame
speed PhD thesis, University of Twente, The Netherlands.
[2] A.A. Verbeek, P.A. Willems, G.G.M. Stoffels, B.J. Geurts and T.H. van der
Meer, Enhancement of turbulent flame speed of V-shaped flames in
fractal-grid-generated turbulence, (2014), under review at Combustion
and Flame.
[3] A.A. Verbeek, T.W.F.M. Bouten, G.G.M. Stoffels, B.J. Geurts and T.H. van der
Meer, Fractal turbulence enhancing low-swirl combustion, Combustion
and Flame 162 (2015) pp. 129-143.
[4] A.A. Verbeek, R.C. Pos, G.G.M. Stoffels, B.J. Geurts and T.H. van der Meer,
A compact active grid for stirring pipe flow (2013), in: Experiments in
Fluids, 54:10(1594).
[5] A.A. Verbeek, W. Jansen, G.G.M. Stoffels and T.H. van der Meer, Improved
flame front curvature measurements for noisy OH-LIF images (2013),
in: 8th World Conferences on Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mecha-
nics and Thermodynamics, Lisbon, Portugal.
[6] A.A. Verbeek, R.C. Pos, G.G.M. Stoffels, B.J. Geurts and T.H. van der Meer,
The Generation of Resonant Turbulence for a Premixed Burner (2012),
in: Engineering Turbulence Modelling and Measurements ETMM9, Thes-
saloniki, Greece
[7] A.A. Verbeek, G.G.M. Stoffels, R.J.M. Bastiaans and T.H. van der Meer,
Optimization of Combustion in Gas Turbines by applying Resonant Tur-
bulence (2011), in: IGU Research Conference 2011, Seoul, South Korea
[8] A.A. Verbeek, R.C. Pos, G.G.M. Stoffels and T.H. van der Meer, Resonant
Turbulence applied to a Low Swirl Burner (2011), in: European Combus-
tion Meeting 5, Cardiff, UK.
[9] Cardoso de Souza, T., Geurts, B.J., Bastiaans, R.J.M., de Goey, L.P.H. (2014).
Modulation of a turbulent bunsen flame by upstream perturbations,
Proceedings of the 10th International Ercoftac Symposium on Engi-
neering Turbulence Modeling and Measurements (ETMM10), Marbella,
Spain.
swirl flames modulated by fractal grid generated
turbulence was observed.
The main outcome of the project MoST consisted on the
search of combustion rate intensification in premixed
flames, e.g., low swirl flames, or envelope flame types, by
means of turbulence stimulation through fractal grids or
spatially periodic modulation. In this research the primary
focus was on methane-air mixtures, such that further
research is required to establish our main conclusions
to other types of fuels, e.g., hydrogen and other hydro-
carbons fuels. The research developed through project
MoST promotes a significant contribution to premixed
combustion and turbulence control research, especially for
those focused on generating heat and momentum through
combustion using clean and efficient approaches.
[10] Cardoso de Souza, T, et al. Steady large-scale modulation of a modera-
tely turbulent co-flow jet, Journal of Turbulence 15.5 (2014): 273-292.
[11] Cardoso de Souza, T., Bastiaans, R.J.M., de Goey, L.P.H., Geurts, B.J. (2014).
Space-time modulation of turbulence in co-flow jets, submitted to
Physics of Fluids (in review).
[12] Cardoso de Souza, T (2014). Modulated turbulence for premixed flames,
PhD thesis, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
[13] Cardoso de Souza, T., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Geurts, B.J., de Goey, L.P.H. (2012).
DNS of a Large-Scale modulated turbulent mixing layer, Proceedings of
the 9th International Ercoftac Symposium on Engineering Turbulence
Modeling and Measurements (ETMM9), 6-8 June 2012, Thessaloniki,
Greece.
[14] Cardoso de Souza, T., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Geurts, B.J., de Goey, L.P.H. (2011).
LES and RANS of premixed combustion in a gas-turbine like combustor
using the flamelet generated manifold approach, Proceedings of ASME
Turbo Expo 2011, June 6-10, 2011, Vancouver, Canada, (pp. GT2011-
46355-1/9).
[15] Cardoso de Souza, T., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Geurts, B.J., de Goey, L.P.H. (2011).
Numerical analysis of a swirl stabilized premixed combustor with
the flamelet generated manifold approach, In H. Kuerten et al. (Ed.),
Proceedings of the Direct and Large-Eddy Simulation VIII (DLES8), 7-9
July 2010, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, (Ercoftac Series, pp. 321-326).
Springer.
[16] Cardoso de Souza, T., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Geurts, B.J., de Goey, L.P.H. (2011).
Large Eddy Simulations of Stabilized Premixed Combustion using FGM,
Proceedings of European Combustion Meeting (ECM), 28 June-1 July
2011, Cardiff, Wales.
Schone en zuinige verbranding 25
 Results and Conclusions
The use of FGM as a combustion model shows that
combustion features at gas turbine conditions can be
satisfactorily reproduced with a reasonable computational
ALTAS: Advanced Low NOx Flexible Fuel Gas effort. Furthermore, the technique shows great benefits
in terms of calculation time and stability of the simulation.
Turbine Combustion, Aero and Stationary Overall, the application of the present FGM model in
combination with standard turbulence models available
in commercial CFD codes provides a phenomenal tool for
the simulation of nearly any technically relevant partially
premixed turbulent combustion problem. The developed
combustion model retains most of the physical accuracy
of a detailed simulation while drastically reducing its
computational time, paving the way for new developments
Projectleaders: dr.ir. R.J.M. Bastiaans, of alternative fuel usage in a cleaner and more efficient
prof.dr. L.P.H. de Goey, dr.ir. J.A. van Oijen combustion. In addition to this, it is concluded that spatially
filtered flamelets present the possibility of accurate
In spite of the increasing presence of renewable energy predictions of turbulent combustion in the scenario of
sources, fossil fuels will remain the primary supply of the increasing computational power.
world’s energy needs for the upcoming future. Modern
gas-turbine based systems represent one of the most
efficient large-scale power generation technology
currently available. Alongside this, gas-turbine power
plants operate with very low emissions, have flexible
operational characteristics and are able to utilize a broad
range of fuels. It is expected that gas-turbine based
plants will play an important role as an effective means
of converting combustion energy in the future as well,
because of the vast potential energy savings. The
numerical approach to the design of complex systems
such as gas-turbines has gained a continuous growth of
interest in the last few decades. This because simulations
are foreseen to provide a tremendous increase in the
combustor efficiency, fuel-flexibility and quality over
the next future.

Research Method
Several numerical models have been developed in order
to reduce the costs of flame simulations for engineering
applications. In the present project the Flamelet-
Generated Manifold (FGM) chemistry reduction method
is implemented and extended for the inclusion of all the
features that are typically observed in stationary gas-
turbine combustion. These include stratification effects,
heat loss and turbulence. Along this process, the model
validity is investigated by comparison with experimental
data or detailed chemistry results. In parallel to this
work, a novel method of capturing the interaction
between turbulence-chemistry is developed and applied.
This new method is named as Filtered Flamelet Generated
Manifold (FFGM).

1 Progress of the reaction

in a slice plane of a gas-
1
turbine model combustor.

26 Brandbrief STW 2015

 2 Instantaneous source
term snapshots at different
2 levels of FFGM filtering.

Publications Produced Within the Project

[1] Donini, A. (2014). Advanced turbulent combustion modeling for gas [8] Donini, A., Martin, S.M., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de

turbine application. PhD Thesis. Eindhoven: Technische Universiteit (2013). Numerical simulations of a premixed turbulent confined jet
Eindhoven. ((Co-)promot.: prof.dr. L.P.H. de Goey, dr.ir. R.J.M. Bastiaans & flame using the flamelet generated manifold approach with heat loss
dr.ir. J.A. van Oijen). inclusion. Conference Paper : Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo
GT2013-94363.
[2] Mukhopadhyay, S. (2014). Modeling turbulent combustion using spati-
[9] Donini, A., Martin, S.M., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de
ally filtered flamelets. PhD Thesis. Eindhoven: Technische Universiteit
Eindhoven. ((Co-)promot.: prof.dr. L.P.H. de Goey, dr.ir. R.J.M. Bastiaans & (2013). Application of flamelet generated manifolds approach with heat
dr.ir. J.A. van Oijen). loss inclusion to a turbulent high-pressure premixed confined jet flame.
Proceedings Direct and Large Eddy Simulation XI, ERCOFTAC.
[3] Donini, A., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de (2014). Dif-
[10] Donini, A., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Oijen, J.A. van, Day, M.S. & Goey, L.P.H. de
ferential diffusion effects inclusion with flamelet generated manifold
for the modeling of stratified premixed cooled flames. Proceedings of (2011). A priori assessment of the potential of flamelet generated
the Combustion Institute. manifolds to model lean turbulent premixed hydrogen combustion.
Proceedings of Direct and Large-Eddy Simulation VIII, ERCOFTAC.
[4] Donini, A., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de (2014).
[11] Donini, A., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Oijen, J.A. van, Day, M.S. & Goey, L.P.H.
Numerical Simulations of a Turbulent High-Pressure Premixed Cooled
Jet Flame with the Flamelet Generated Manifolds Technique. Journal of de (2011). A priori analysis of lean turbulent premixed hydrogen
Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power. combustion DNS simulation : FGM testing and sub-grid scale analysis.
Proceedings of the 5th European Combustion Meeting (ECM2011),
[5] Donini, A., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de (2014). The Cardiff, UK.
application of flamelet-generated manifold in the modeling of partially
premixed cooled flames. Conference Paper : Proceedings of the 15th
International Symposium on Transport Phenomena and Dynamics of
Rotating Machinery (ISROMAC 15).

[6] Donini, A., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de (2014). The

application of flamelet-generated manifold in the modeling of stratified

premixed cooled flames. Conference Paper: Proceedings of the ASME
Turbo Expo 2014: GT2014-26210.

[7] Donini, A., Martin, S.M., Bastiaans, R.J.M., Oijen, J.A. van & Goey, L.P.H. de

(2013). High pressure jet flame numerical analysis of CO emissions

by means of the flamelet generated manifolds technique. Conference
Paper : 11th International Conference of Numerical Analysis and Applied
Mathematics 2013 (ICNAAM-2013), AIP Conference Proceeding 1558,
136-139.

Schone en zuinige verbranding 27

 (CARS) were used to measure local instantaneous
properties of velocity and temperature.

In the multiburner 300 kWth,max MEEC furnace

flexFLOX: Flameless combustion conditions
and efficiency improvement of single- and
multiburner-FLOXTM furnaces in relation to
changes in fuel and oxidizer composition
experimental studies were made of the relations between
burner configuration, firing mode, throughput, heat sink
thermal capacity and fuel type. Local temperature was
measured using both thermocouples and spectroscopic
methods (CARS) in the near burner zone. A new probe
was developed and used to obtain species concentration
profiles for a range of operating conditions.

Computational modeling of the DJHC experiments and

Projectleaders: prof.dr. D.J.E.M. Roekaerts,
dr.ir. W. de Jong, dr.ir. M.J. Tummers
Flameless combustion is a clean combustion concept
leading to strongly reduced pollutant emissions
compared to traditional combustion processes. To reach
the flameless combustion regime the air (and/or fuel)
streams are diluted with hot combustion products with a
temperature sufficiently high for the combustion process
to be stable and occurring in a distributed reaction zone.
the MEEC furnace was done using different levels of
modeling complexity. The predictive power of the Eddy-
Dissipation-Concept model in combination with relatively
detailed chemical mechanisms and of transported
probability density function (PDF) methods in combination
with Flamelet Generated Manifolds (FGM) was explored.
1 300 kWth, max,
MEEC furnace at TU Delft.

In furnace applications it leads to a higher efficiency

because of the more extensive use of air preheat. To
widen the range of applicability of the this technology,
the impact of changes in fuel and oxidizer composition
on the combustion process in furnaces operated using
flameless combustion has been investigated. Dutch natural
gas (DNG) being the base-line fuel, also the combustion
of biogas (represented as mixture of DNG and CO2) and
mixtures of DNG and H2 has been investigated. The
industrial partners Tata Steel, Shell, WS GmbH, Numeca Int.
and Celsian Glass and Solar have been actively involved in
the project and have carried out part of the research.

Research method
By combining detailed measurements and modeling, in
single- and multi-burner furnaces insight has been gained
in the flame structure, heat transfer enhancement and
emission reduction. The relevant turbulent reactive mixing
processes were examined using laser diagnostic methods
and computed in detail using detailed and reduced chemical
models and using statistical models for turbulence and
turbulence chemistry interaction.

An existing “Delft-jet-in-hot-coflow” (DJHC) burner was

used to mimic conditions of flameless conditions with
well-defined temperature and oxygen concentrations
of the oxidizer. High speed camera observations of
chemiluminescence revealed the characteristics of the
flame stabilization process. Particle image velocimetry
1
(PIV) and Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy

28 Brandbrief STW 2015

2 Images of the jet-in-hot-
coflow flame base at different
H2 –levels, for a long exposure
time of 1 s (left) and for a
short exposure time of 0.5 ms
(right). The red ellipse points
out an autoignition kernel and
the red crosses denote the
2
fuel pipe exit.
Results
The transition from flame stabilization by ignition kernels
to flame stabilization flame propagation in flameless
combustion conditions was fully clarified by a parametric
study with varying H2 content or CO2 content in the jet fuel
and varying coflow composition and temperature (figure 2).
Apart from fuel composition, also temperature and oxygen
concentration determine whether or not a flameless
combustion mode can be reached. The implication for
furnaces is that whether or not flameless combustion
is possible, not only depends on the fuel and air properties
but also on process conditions such as furnace tempera-
ture. Provided the temperature of the flue gas entrained
into the near burner zone can be kept below a certain
bound, flameless combustion will be accessible also for
fuels containing substantial amounts of H2.
A new model, 4D-FGM for three stream mixing and
ignition with heat loss, has been developed and applied
in simulations of jet-in-hot-coflow flames in combination
with the transported PDF method. A full set of model
predictions has been obtained for all the cases of DNG
diluted with CO2, and validated with the experimental
data. Complementary to this, Large Eddy Simulation results
of the DNG diluted with H2 cases have been obtained at
TU/e in the frame of CCC MildNOx project.
Comparison of the results of this project for jet-in-hot-
coflow flames with literature results show that the FGM
tabulated chemistry combined with RANS/transported
PDF provides an accurate and cost-effective model for
CFD simulations of jet-in-coflow flameless combustion
systems, i.e. more accurate than the EDC model and more
cost-effective than LES.
The MEEC furnace (figure 1) turned out to be a very
valuable setup to study the influence of burner
configuration and operation parameters on emissions.
The CFD simulation of this furnace remains a difficult
task. The best results so far have been obtained with
skeletal chemical mechanism in combination with EDC
model, but the validation of the model is incomplete.
The new results obtained with the species probe provide
valuable information on in furnace concentrations. They
can be used in validation of CFD models provided the CFD
models incorporate the presence of the probe in the furnace.
As a result of the flexFLOX project burner manufacturer
WS GmbH will be able to use the new insights from
experiments and modeling in the extension of the
operations of their burners towards larger fuel flexibility.
Companies operating furnaces (Tata Steel and Shell) will be
able to use the insights on fuel flexibility and on optimal
burner arrangements in the retrofit of existing furnaces
and construction of new ones. Software companies
(Numeca Int.) or engineering companies with own codes
(Celsian Glass and Solar) will use the new models to
support their customers. At the university in a follow-up
project a new single-burner-furnace (SBF) that resulted
from the flexFLOX project will be studied with similar
methods as used in the flexFLOX project, using a burner
provided by WS GmbH.
The project contributed to the overall objectives of the
CCC program by elucidating the fundamental aspects of
flameless combustion in turbulent flow conditions and
bringing this clean combustion technique closer to wide-
spread application.
Schone en zuinige verbranding 29
 Journal Publications Poster presentation abstracts

[1] E.-S. Cho, D. Shin, J. Lu, W. de Jong and D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, Configuration [1] G. Sarras, M.K. Stöllinger and D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, Simulation of the

effects of natural gas fired multi-pair regenerative burners in a flameless
oxidation furnace on efficiency and emissions, Applied Energy, 107 (2013)
25-32
[2] G. Sarras, Y. Mahmoudi, L.D. Arteaga Mendez, E.H. van Veen, M.J. Tum-
mers, and D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, Modeling of Turbulent Natural Gas and Biogas
[2] L.D. Arteaga Mendez, M.J. Tummers and D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, Effect of
Flames of the Delft Jet-in-Hot-Coflow Burner: Effects of Coflow Tempera-
ture, Fuel Temperature and Fuel Composition on the Flame Lift-Off Height,
Flow, Turbulence and Combustion, 93 (2014) 4, 607-635
[3] L.D. Arteaga Mendez, E.H. van Veen, M.J. Tummers and D.J.E.M. Roekaerts,
Effect of hydrogen addition on the structure of natural-gas jet-in-hot-
[3] Gerasimos Sarras, Michael Stoellinger and Dirk Roekaerts, Simulation
coflow flames, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 2014, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.proci.2014.06.146
Conference papers
Delft-jet-in-hot-coflow burner using transported PDF methods and
FGM tabulated chemistry, In: A. Dreizler, A. Kemp land R. Barlow (Eds.),
Book of abstracts of TNF11 “Eleventh International Workshop on
Measurement and Computation of Turbulent Flames”, July 26–28, 2012,
Darmstadt, Germany, pp 14-15
fuel and oxidizer composition on jet-in-coflow flames, In: A. Dreizler,
A. Kemp land R. Barlow (Eds.), Book of abstracts of TNF11 “Eleventh
International Workshop on Measurement and Computation of Turbulent
Flames”, July 26–28, 2012, Darmstadt, Germany, pp 54-55
of the Delft-jet-in-hot-coflow burner using transported PDF method
and FGM tabulated chemistry, Abstract of Work-in-Progress poster,
Thirthy-Fourth International Symposium on Combustion, Warsaw, 2012,
poster W4P100

[4] Jie Lu, Eun-Seong Cho, Eric van Veen, Wiebren de Jong and Dirk
[1] E.-S. Cho, J. Lu, W. de Jong and D. Roekaerts, Emission characteristics of
Roekaerts, Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy measurement
a flameless oxidation furnace with various multi-burner configurations,
in a regenerative multi-burner flameless oxidation furnace, Abstract
European Combustion Meeting, Cardiff, June 29- July 1, 2011, T. Griffiths
of Work-in-Progress poster, Thirthy-Fourth International Symposium
(Ed.), Cardiff, UK, paper 212, 1-6
on Combustion, Warsaw, 2012, poster W5P035
[2] M.A. Etaati, D. Roekaerts, G. Sarras and M. Stoellinger, Modeling of the
[5] G. Sarras, L.D. Arteaga Mendez, S.Y. Mahmoudi Larimi, M.J. Tummers,
Delft jet-in-hot-coflow burner as a non-adiabatic three stream problem,
D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, Flame structure and lift-off height of biogas
European Combustion Meeting, Cardiff, June 29- July 1, 2011, T. Griffiths
combustion in jet-in-hot coflow flame, Abstract of Work-in-Progress
(Ed.), Cardiff, UK, paper 293, 1-6
Poster, Int. Conf. Dynamics of Explosive and Reactive Systems (ICDERS),
[3] G. Sarras, M.K. Stoellinger and D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, Transported PDF Taipei, July 28, August 2, 2013, poster #269, p. 120

simulations of the Delft-jet-in-hot-coflow, burner based on 3D FGM

tabulated chemistry, In: Book of Extended Abstracts, Turbulence,
Heat and Mass Transfer 7, K.Hanjalic, Y.Nagano, D.Borello, S.Jakirlic (Eds.),
Begell House, Inc., 2012, pp 729 – 732

[4] G. Sarras, M.K. Stoellinger and D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, Transported PDF

simulations of the Delft-jet-in-hot-coflow, burner based on 3D FGM

tabulated chemistry, In: Proceedings Turbulence, Heat and Mass
Transfer 7, K.Hanjalic, Y.Nagano, D.Borello, S.Jakirlic (Eds.), 2012, 10 pages

[5] L.D. Arteaga Mendez, M.J. Tummers, D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, Effect of

Hydrogen on the Stabilization Mechanism of Natural Gas jet-in-hot-

coflow Flames, European Combustion Meeting – 2013, June 25-28,
2013, Lund, Sweden, Paper P1-16, 1-4

[6] G.Sarras, M.K.Stoellinger, D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, Transported PDF simulations

of the Delft Jet-in-Hot-Coflow burner based on 4D-FGM tabulated

chemistry, European Combustion Meeting – 2013, June 25-28, 2013,
Lund, Sweden, Paper P1-80, 1-6, ISBN 978-91-637-2151-9.

[7] Y. Mahmoudi, G. Sarras, L.D. Arteaga Mendez, M. Çelik, M.J. Tummers,

and D.J.E.M. Roekaerts, Flame structure and stabilization mechanism

of biogas flame in a jet-in-hot-coflow burner, 8th Mediterranean
Combustion Symposium, September 8-13, 2013, Çesme, , Izmir,
Turkey, Paper TC-16, 1-12, Editors: Nevin Selcuk, Federico Beretta,
Mohy S. Mansour, and Andrea d’Anna. Publisher: International Centre
For Heat and Mass Transfer, METU, Ankara, Turkey.

30 Brandbrief STW 2015

 2
Promotions
Dr. L. Zhou 30 September 2013
Dr. S. Ayyaoureddi 9 January 2014
Dr. P.G.M. Hoeijmakers 28 January 2014
Dr. M. Shahi 24 September 2014
Ir. N. Speelman September 2015 (expected)

Schone en zuinige verbranding 31


Emission reduction in compression-ignition
engines by fuel tuning
Lei Zhou
Promotiondate: 30 September 2013
Excessive consumption of fossil fuels is leading to global
environmental degradation effects, such as the green-
house effect, acid rain, and ozone depletion. The main rea-
son for these increased pollution levels, notwithstanding
stringent emission regulations, is related for a large part to
road transport [1]. Moreover, combustion of various fuels
in this sector (e.g. diesel engines) leads to emission of
several harmful pollutants, such as NOx, CO, HC, and soot.
1
32 Brandbrief STW 2015
These pollutants contribute to several detrimental effects
on human health; especially long-term health effects are
associated with particulate matter (PM), of which the main
constituent is soot. Consequently, in order to adopt ap-
propriate lignin based bio-fuels as alternatives for diesel to
obtain lower soot emission, this project is focused on the
exploration of the mechanisms of soot formation by using
advanced measurement methods by combining fundamen-
tal investigation and applied research.
Research method
As shown in Figure 1, the fundamental research is ac-
complished by a special designed High Pressure Vessel
and Burner (HPVB) with an optical accessibility for laser
diagnostic techniques. It provides capabilities of burning
vaporized liquid fuels in laminar diffusion flames and the
research focuses on the impact of fuel molecular struc-
ture on the sooting tendencies of relevant fuels and
biofuels. Besides, the HPVB setup is designed to allow
measurements at elevated pressures. For the prospective
of applications of relevant fuels in compression ignition
engines, the research is focused on the effect of molecular
structure on the NOx-soot emissions trade-off and corres-
ponding engine performance. This is realized by means of
experiments on a modified DAF heavy-duty diesel engine.
Results
According to the results both on the flame research and
engine research, it becomes clear that saturated cyclic oxy-
genate fuels are better than diesel in terms of soot pro-
duction or emission. Moreover, the cyclic oxygenates are in
an earlier stage of the depolymerization process of lignin
than the linear compounds. As a result, it is worthwhile to
further investigate cyclic oxygenates, including saturated
cyclic oxygenates and aromatics oxygenates.
Then, further research proves that aromatics (2-phenyl
ethanol) are better than saturated rings (cyclohexaneet-
hanol), based on the measurements of emissions and
performance on a heavy duty compression ignition engine.
Given that it is worth to focus on aromatic fuels due to
their less cost in the process of depolymerization from
lignin, two more types of aromatic oxygenates (anisole
and benzyl alcohol) as well as 2-phenyl ethanol have been
investigated. The results demonstrate that benzyl alcohol
outperforms all of the aromatics, with respect to engine
performance and emissions
1 Lower emission by fuel tuning.

Advances in the Application of Flamelet
Generated Manifold for Diesel Engine
Combustion Modeling
Sridhar Ayyapureddi
Promotiondate: 9 January 2014
Flamelet generated manifold (FGM) is a tabulated
chemistry approach which is one of the most efficient
and accurate methods to model reactive flows. This
method has been applied to model diesel engine
combustion. The industry is in need of such models for
their engine development work. The main focus of this
thesis work is to bring enhancements in this approach
to achieve a robust and complete model in-order to
predict the complex diesel spray combustion processes
more accurately. The three aspects dealt with in this
thesis are the all important auto-ignition delay, full
engine cycle simulations and pollutant emissions.
A dedicated commercial engine CFD code STAR-CD has
been used to model turbulent induced sprays (two-phase
flow). In this framework, FGM i.e. lookup based method
is implemented with a tabulated chemistry (igniting
flamelets or homogeneous reactors) to account for
auto-ignition phenomena in a constant combustion
volume. Many other aspects of this tabulation technique
(table resolution and turbulence chemistry interaction etc)
have been tested and evaluated to improve the predic-
tability of the model for the ignition characteristics at a
wide range of engine-like conditions. The model validation
is done using wide set of experimental data available
from Engine Combustion Network consortium. Some key
results are shown in Figure1.
Additional dimensions for FGM are necessary to apply it
in a variable geometry and non-adiabatic wall boundary
conditions for engine cycle simulations. Variable Enthalpy
and pressure based FGM implemented for engine cycle
simulations and the improvements in the predictions
corresponding to the flame structure, species concen-
trations and local temperature predictions are examined.
The main outcome from this study: (a) defining the local
1 Contours of key parame-
ters from CFD simulation with
FGM based on Ignition flame-
lets (left) and Homogeneous
reactors (right).
Schone en zuinige verbranding 33
 state identifier in CFD for lookup (b) the optimum number
levels. The engine data and experimental cylinder pressure
(and heat release data) from DAF engines have been
used for model validation as shown in Figure 2. Note
that FGM is based on a detailed chemical model and no
tuning parameters are needed in the approach.

Eventually, the implementation of pollutant formation

sub-models for engine applications within the FGM
approach is performed. The relatively well understood
NOx formation processes are implemented, Soot modelling
poses a more significant challenge due to its complexity
associated with the formation processes and the lack
of complete understanding in literature. A soot model,
which includes more detailed processes is developed
and analysed with respect to available literature. Further,
simulation of the soot fields of one of the ECN spray is
performed and the results are compared with available
experimental data from the network. The Figure 3 shows
the main result.

Concluding the thesis work has shown the extension of

2
FGM to engine simulations and its applicability to model
all relevant processes efficiently without the often needed
2 Figure 2. FGM model
validation with 5 pressure
tuning constants involved in commonly used methods in
levels against DAF engine industry. Only the soot model still needs more attention.
experimental data.

3 FGM model validation for

soot predictions (left) against
the experimental observati-
ons (right).

34 Brandbrief STW 2015


Suppression of thermo-acoustic
instabilities in central heating equipment
by burner design optimization and
active control
Dr. P.G.M. Hoeijmakers
Promotiondate: 28 January 2014
Boilers and central heating systems are highly susceptible to
acoustic instability of combustion. In essence, the flame acts
as an amplifier of acoustic waves. Such waves are reflected
back towards the flame at the inlet and outlets of the system,
thereby causing a resonant unstable feedback loop.
This problem is especially pronounced under premixed
fuel lean operation, widely used in this kind of systems
due to the lower thermal NOx emissions. New generations
of heating equipment are needed to minimize these
emissions and to adapt to variations in gas composition
(both geographical and in time). In the design phase of new
heating equipment the problem of acoustic instability is
often handled by trial and error, after the first prototypes
are built. This significantly increases costs and design time.
The goal of this project is to develop the methods and
solutions necessary to predict the problem early in the
design stage, and ultimately to mitigate thermoacoustic
instabilities altogether.
Approach
Due to the coupled nature of the phenomenon both the
acoustics as well as the flame behaviour of a combustion
system are important. The research therefore focused on
ways to solve to problem on both sides of this equation.
In terms of the flame behaviour, it is crucial to understand
how exactly the heat release responds to excitation of the
acoustic velocity. This response can be quantified by a so
called flame transfer function. The flame transfer function
is strongly dependent on flow, mixture and geometrical
properties of the burner. A thorough understanding of
the interrelation between these properties is desirable to
speed up the burner design cycle and obtain he desired
response without too much trail and error. In addition,
a further decrease in development time can be achieved
by performing numerical simulations of the flame
transfer function. Therefore, an important part of the
current project was the validation of a computational
fluid dynamics approach to simulate the flame dynamics
for perforated plate burner decks. Alternatively, in
order to facilitate active control approaches in an actual
appliance, a cheap and reliable sensor is needed to detect
flame oscillations, as well as open the possibility for
in-situ flame transfer function measurements.
The acoustical response of the system is equally important
to the occurrence of acoustic oscillations. In many cases
the oscillation frequency is strongly coupled to the passive
(without flame) eigenmodes of the system. An interesting
approach is therefore to increase the acoustic losses
of the system up to a level that it no longer can support
any eigenmodes, i.e. apply system boundaries which
do not reflect any acoustic waves. Under such conditions,
the feedback loop should be broken, and therefore no
instabilities should occur.
Results
The flame transfer functions of laminar bunsen type flames
were simulated using a FLUENT code. The simulations and
measurements showed a very good agreement. This opens
the possibility to perform the parameterization of the
flame transfer function in terms of the burner geometrical
parameters, e.g. hole size and pitch, towards the regime of
realistic burner geometries.
Regarding an alternative measurement sensor for the
flame heat release, an interesting new development
was the use of an ionization sensor. Such sensors are
already widely employed to measure the presence of the
flame on the burner deck, but the current project also
investigated the possibility to actually measure the heat
release fluctuations. As it turned out, it is entirely possible
to |measure the flame transfer function were the the
ionization sensor acts as the heat release sensor. This
opens the possibility of in-situ flame transfer function
measurements, and ultimately cheap active control
strategies in realistic appliances.
The subject of increasing the acoustic losses to
suppress thermoacoustic instabilities was first extensively
investigated from a theoretical viewpoint. Surprisingly,
it turns out that when the flame is placed amidst anechoic
boundary conditions, thermoacoustic instabilities may
still occur. The reason for this is that the flame may be
‘open-loop’ unstable. This is a consequence of the fact
that the flame can possess intrinsically unstable eigen-
modes, which dominate the system. This behavior was
entirely unexpected, and formed the motivation for an
experimental quest to validate the theoretical predictions.
Schone en zuinige verbranding 35
 1 1 The horn in the laboratory.

In order to increase the acoustic losses in an experimental Journal Publications

setting, a large acoustic horn was designed and build,
[1] Hoeijmakers, P.G.M., Lopez Arteaga, I., Kornilov, V.N. , Goey, L.P.H.
see figure 1. An acoustic horn is a very efficient way to
de & Nijmeijer, H. (2013). Accuracy assessment of thermo-acoustic
radiate the acoustic waves present in a duct system to the instability models using binary classication. International Journal of
environment. As a consequence the reflection coefficient Spray and Combustion Dynamics, 5(3), 201-224.
is very low over a wide frequency range, e.g. 150-1000 Hz.
[2] Hoeijmakers, P.G.M., Lopez Arteaga, I., Kornilov, V.N. , Goey, L.P.H.
With horns attached to both the up- and downstream
de & Nijmeijer, H. (2014), Intrinsic instability of flame-acoustic coupling,
sides of the flames, an extensive set of experiments were Combustion and Flame [In Press].
conducted, using different fuel flow rates, equivalence
[3] Hoeijmakers, P.G.M., Lopez Arteaga, I., Kornilov, V.N. , Goey, L.P.H.
ratios and burner geometries. As predicted by theory,
de & Nijmeijer, H. (2014), Flames in context of thermo-acoustic stability
many thermoacoustic instabilities were still encountered. bounds, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute [In Press].
However, not all results were as expected, and further
[4] Peerlings L. B.W., Manohar, Kornilov V. N., de Goey L.P.H.
research is still needed to provide an unequivocal answer
“Flame ion generation rate as a measure of the flame thermo-acoustic
to the question if the predicted intrinsic instability may response”, Combustion and Flame, 160 (2013) 2490–2496.
easily occur in practice.
[5] Volkov E.N., Kornilov V.N. and de Goey L.P.H., “Experimental evaluation

of DC electric field effect on the thermoacoustic behaviour of flat

In summary, the project led to significant advances in
premixed flames”, Proc. Combust. Inst., v. 34, issue 1, (2013) 955–962
the understanding and modeling of thermoacoustic
instabilities, with a number of results which could lead
to innovative design solutions in the future.

36 Brandbrief STW 2015


Modeling of complex physics and
combustion dynamics in a combustor with
a partially premixed turbulent flame
Mina Shahi
Promotiondate: 24 September 2014
Teneinde de vorming van stoichiometrische gebieden
in vlammen in een gasturbineverbrandingskamer te voor-
komen, en daarmee ook de vorming van stikstof oxiden,
is voor gasturbines een alternatieve verbrandings-
technologie geintroduceerd door middel van mengselarme
voorgemengde verbranding. Hiermee kan voldaan worden
aan steeds strenger wordende eisen aan de maximale
stikstofoxide emissie voor industriele gasturbine motoren
voor krachtopwekking. De gerealiseerde lage emissie
van stikstofoxiden en koolmonoxide door toepassing
van de nieuwe verbrandingstechnologie leidt echter tot
een verhoogde gevoeligheid voor thermo-akoestische
instabiliteiten. Deze worden gedreven door de terug-
1 2
koppelingslus tussen vrijkomende warmte, druk- en
stromingsfluctuaties. De drukoscillaties die worden
veroorzaakt door de thermo-akoestische instabiliteiten
kunnen zeer hoge amplituden bereiken, waardoor ernstige
schade en een sterk verkorte levensduur van de gasturbine
kan ontstaan. Om deze reden is het belangrijk al in de
ontwerpfase van een gasturbineverbrandingskamer te
kunnen bepalen of onder gegeven omstandigheden
een stabiele vlam wordt gerealiseerd. Hiervoor is de
beschikbaarheid van nauwkeurige modellen voor de voor-
spelling van amplitude en frequentie van drukoscillaties
noodzakelijk.
Het werk gepresenteerd in de dissertatie van Mina Shahi,
is verricht in het kader van het Marie Curie project
“LIMOUSINE” en focusseert zich op de numerieke model-
lering van de interactie tussen de gekoppelde velden
van stroming, druk en warmte voor de voorspelling van
het optreden van spontane druk oscillaties met hoge
amplitude in gas turbine motoren.
In dit proefschrift worden twee gekoppelde methoden
beschouwd voor de numerieke berekeningen. Bij de eerste
methode worden de phenomenen in zowel fluidum als
structureel domein in een oplossingsdomein numeriek
opgelost. De gekoppelde vergelijkingen voor beide
domeinen worden simultaan opgelost met behulp van
de ANSYS-CFX code, met dezelfde tijdstap voor zowel
fluidum als structureel domein.in deze aanpak speelt
de strategie voor het bepalen van de discrete punten in
het rekendomein een belangrijke rol voor de berekening
van de amplitude van de druk fluctuaties. De koppeling
tussen structuur en fluidum is heel sterk op het grensvlak.
In deze thesis wordt aan deze aanpak gerefereerd als de
Conjugated Heat Transfer (CHT) aanpak.
In de tweede methode wordt de interactie tussen fluidum
en structuur gekoppeld aan de wandvibratie met behulp
van een gepartioneerde aanpak met een schema voor
sterke koppeling. Hier worden twee afzonderlijke oplos-
singsmethoden en rekendomeinen gebruikt (ANSYS-CFX
and ANSYS Multiphysics), die worden gekoppeld door
middel van geschikte randvoorwaarden en interpolaties
1 The LIMOUSINE combustor:
thermal load on the structure in
an unstable operating condition.
Red dot on structure center is the
laser vibrometer beam.
2 Sketch of the fluid and solid
regions as one computational
domain.
Schone en zuinige verbranding 37

op het grensvlak. De grensvlakinformatie wordt tussen
beide codes uitgewisseld op iedere tijdstap. In deze
thesis wordt aan deze aanpak gerefereerd als de twee-
weg FSI aanpak. Beide methoden zijn gevalideerd met
de experimentele data verkregen voor de LIMOUSINE
verbrandingskamer in limiet oscillatie. (zie fig 1 en 2).
Voorafgaand aan de bovengenoemde onderzoeken
(CHT en FSI), in het tweede en derde deel van dit werk,
zijn de analyse en validatie berekeningen uitgevoerd
van het ‘fluïdum-only’ domein. In deze werkwijze, de
zogenaamde ‘zero-way coupling approach’ wordt de
terugkoppeling van de vibrerende wanden naar het
akoestische veld in de verbrandingskamer verwaarloosd.
Hierbij zijn de effecten van het roostertype op de nauw-
keurigheid van de voorspelde gegevens eerst onderzocht,
en vervolgens de invloed van de turbulente verbranding
modellering op de voorspelde vlamdynamiek geëvalueerd.
Aangezien bij deze benadering de demping / amplificatie-
effecten veroorzaakt door de verbrandingskamerwand
(door bijvoorbeeld warmteverlies of vervorming) niet
in aanmerking wordt genomen, is het belangrijk om een
accurate randvoorwaarde te kiezen die de werkelijke
fysische toestand zo dicht mogelijk benadert. Daarom
worden verschillende thermische randvoorwaarden
toegepast en de effecten op de eigenschappen van de
instabiliteiten geëvalueerd.
38 Brandbrief STW 2015
3 Pressure spectrum for
40kW and l=1.4 : experiment
(solid line), CHT numerical
prediction (dash-dot).
De resultaten van de fluïdum-only simulatie toonde
een voorspelling met overschatting van de frequentie
en grootte van de opgetreden thermo instabiliteit.
Berekeningen met de isotherme verbrandingskamerwand
voorspelde het begin van de instabiliteiten correct.
In dit geval week de voorspelde frequentie 9,5% af van
de experimentele data. Echter, het modelleren van de
thermische interactie van de verbrandingskamer wand
en de reagerende stroom met behulp van de CHT aanpak
kan de voorspellingen verbeteren en houden rekening
met de warmte penetratiediepte in de wand. Bij deze
benadering werd thermo-akoestische instabiliteit voor-
speld met een afwijking kleiner dan 1% (zie fig 3). Het
fluidum-structuur interactie model (FSI) voorspelde correct
de frequentie van de instabiliteit, maar de amplitude van
de berekende druksignalen werd hoger voorspeld dan
gemeten. De belangrijkste vibratiefrequentie werd correct
voorspeld. Zowel de gemeten en voorspelde resultaten
laten zien dat de terugkoppeling van de vibrerende wand
naar het akoestisch veld gering is.

Model development for ionization
phenomena in premixed laminar flames
Nico Speelman
Promotiondate: September 2015 (expected)
Moderne hoogrendementsketels en andere verbrandings-
toestellen gebruiken om veiligheidsredenen een vlam-
detectie circuit. Deze circuits maken gebruik van elektrische
stromen die optreden als gevolg van vlamionisatie. Eerder
is aangetoond dat de elektrische stromen die optreden
in deze vlammen gerelateerd kunnen worden aan de
equivalentie verhouding van de vlam in kwestie en door
deze correlatie is het mogelijk om het vlamdetectie circuit
te gebruiken voor actieve vlamsturing. Om dit mogelijk te
maken is een gedetailleerde kennis nodig over de interactie
1 Ethanol spray flame
1
in hot diluted co-flow.
tussen de geladen deeltjes, die de stromen faciliteren, en
de elektrische velden die gebruikt worden.
In dit onderzoek is een nieuw fysisch en numeriek model
ontwikkeld, dat in staat is om deze elektrische stromen
in vlakke voorgemengde vlammen te voorspellen. Het
model maakt gebruik van Poisson’s vergelijking om de
elektrische spanningen te berekenen. Verder wordt in het
model gemaakt van een multi-component diffusie model,
dat tevens de elektrische krachten op de geladen deeltjes
mee neemt, om het transport van de neutrale én geladen
deeltjes te modelleren. Dit model is ingebouwd in de be-
staande CHEM1D vlamsimulatiesoftware en dit is gebruikt
om experimenten na te bootsen. De numerieke simulaties
laten een goede gelijkenis zien in de stroom-spannings-
karakteristiek. Fysische fenomenen, zoals saturatie en het
diodisch effect, laten zich goed voorspellen en de relatie
tussen de stroomsterktes en de equivalentie verhouding
wordt ook goed voorspeld voor equivalentieverhoudingen
tussen 0.6 en 1.2.
De simulaties laten een duidelijk verband zien tussen de
saturatiestromen en het totaal aantal geladen deeltjes
die ontstaan in de elementaire reacties. De elektrische
spanning waar saturatie optreedt is daarentegen vooral
afhankelijk van de electronenrecombinatie en de diffu-
siviteit van de geladen deeltjes. Deze kennis is vervolgens
Schone en zuinige verbranding 39
 gebruikt om het chemisch mechanisme te optimaliseren
ten opzichte van de experimenteel bepaalde stroom-
sterktes.
Om het toepassingsgebied van het geoptimaliseerde
mechanisme te bepalen zijn is een vergelijking gemaakt
tussen de numeriek voorspelde waarden en een nieuwe
set metingen. Deze metingen zijn uitgevoerd door Bosch
Thermotechniek BV in Deventer in een opstelling die
anders is dan de meetopstelling die gebruikt is voor de
optimalisatie. De numerieke resultaten laten hierin een
klein, maar acceptabel verschil zien ten opzichte van de
experimenten.
Hierna is het model, samen met het geoptimaliseerde
mechanisme gebruikt om de fysische achtergronden van
interessante eigenschappen van de stroom-spannings-
karakteristiek te onderzoeken. Voor sterke elektrische
velden is de stroomsterkte onafhankelijk van de opgelegde
spanning. Dit saturatiegedrag wordt veroorzaakt door
het wegtrekken van de elektronen uit het vlamplasma
en de dominantie van de elektrische krachten over Fick
diffusie voor de positieve ionen. Door met de numeriek
simulaties het diodisch effect te bestuderen wordt duidelijk
dat dit veroorzaakt wordt door de grotere afstand die
de zwaardere positieve ionen moeten afleggen om de
negatieve elektrode te bereiken.
40 Brandbrief STW 2015
De vlamdetectie circuits zijn gebaseerd op het diodisch
effect samen met een wisselspanningsveld. Om het gedrag
van vlammen in wisselspanningsvelden te onderzoeken,
zijn er simulaties uitgevoerd van zulke situaties en deze
zijn vergeleken met experimenten. In de experimenten
is gevonden, dat de vlammen in wisselspanningsvelden
met een voltage hoger dan het saturatievoltage een
eerste respons zien die sterker is dan de saturatiestroom.
Deze overshoot kan vooral gezien worden wanneer
de frequentie ongeveer 100 Hz of lager is, maar de
absentie hiervan in velden met een frequentie die hoger
is wordt toegeschreven aan een capacitief effect in de
meetopstelling.
De overshoot wordt ook voorspeld in de numerieke
simulaties en aan de hand hiervan is het mogelijk om de
fysische achtergronden van deze overshoot te onder-
zoeken. Hieruit is geconcludeerd dat de overshoot
veroorzaakt wordt door de tijdsrespons van de geladen
stoffen in het vlamplasma. De concentraties van de
geladen deeltjes is lager dan wat op basis van stationaire
simulaties werd verwacht. Dit betekent dat de geladen
deeltjes in instationaire elektrische velden veel sneller
uit de stroming worden getrokken door het elektrisch
veld, waardoor de stroomsterkte hoger is, wanneer tijds-
afhankelijke velden worden beschouwd.
Schone en zuinige verbranding 41
www.stw.nl