CHAPTER FIVE

D.C GENERATOR
 5.1 PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR
An electrical generator is a machine, which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
The energy conversion is based on principle of dynamically induced emf,
whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced emf is produced
in it (Faraday’s law). This emf cause a current to flow if the conductor is closed.
 The basic essential parts of an electrical generator are:
A magnetic Field and
A conductor or conductors, which can so move as to cut the flux.
Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of a simple machine consists of a coil AB
CD rotating in the magnetic field of a strong permanent or powerful
electromagnet.
The magnetic lines in the space between N and S poles are directed from the
North Pole N to the South Pole S as shown in fig 1.
The ends of the coil ABCD are connected to
two copper rings R1 and R2, fixed on the
shaft.
Two brushes B1 and B2 connected to the
external load circuit make contact with the
copper rings R1 and R2 respectively.
Let the coil be rotated in an ACW direction,
with constant surface speed v in relation to the
magnetic field.
According to faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction, an emf will be
induced in the rotating coil and is given by
Load
e=BLV volt
As L and v are constant for particular case, Fig. 1(a). In the 1𝑠𝑡 half revolution
e=constant *B volt
Hence under the given conditions, the change in the magnitude of induced
emf with time depends upon the magnetic flux density distribution under the
poles.
Though the flux density distribution under the poles is of a complex nature,
it may be assumed that neglecting harmonics, it is a sine wave distribution.
Thus the emf induced in the coil varies with time as a sine function.
The direction of the induced emf in this case can be determined by
Fleming’s right hand rule.
 Right- hand Rule
Hence the conductor AB of the coil ABCD
moves downward and CD moves upward, the
direction of the induced emf in the coil is
along DCBA as shown in Fig1. (a).
The current in the external remains the same
for half a revolution of the coil starting from
its vertical position.
Similarly , in the next half of the revolution,
the direction of the induced emf is reversed
and hence the current flows from brush B2 to
B1 as shown in Fig 1 (b).
The magnitude of current in the external
circuit also varies with time as per sine law;
i.e. its magnitude is not constant with time.
 LOAD
Fig.1 (b) In the 2nd half revolution
If the machine has P poles and the armature rotates at N revolutions
per minute, then the frequency of the induced emf in the armature is,
𝑃𝑁
f=
120
The above discussion clearly indicates that the emf induced in the
armature of a dc generator is of alternating nature, alternating with
frequency of f hertz depending upon the number of poles in the
machine and the speed of the armature.
However the output voltage or the current of dc generator
must be unidirectional and that too of a constant value.
Thus to compel the above load circuit, the dc machine is
furnished with a special device called the commutator.
Fig.2 show that the coil ABCD connected to a ring
commutator split in two halves R1 and R2 well insulated from
each other.
The rings of the commutator are so arranged that during half
the revolution of the coil, each half ring remain in contact with
a particular brush.
 while during the next half revolution, when the current is
reversed, the same half ring is in contact with other brush as
shown in fig.2 (b).
As a result, current in the external load circuit remains in the
same direction.

Fig.2 (b) In the 2nd half revolution

 5.2 TYPES OF DC MACHINES
The field winding and the armature winding can be interconnected in various
ways to provide a wide variety of performance characteristics. This can be
taken as outstanding advantages of a dc machines.
A dc machine can work as an electromechanical energy converter only when
its field winding is excited with direct current, except for small dc machines
employing permanent magnets.
According to the method of their field excitation dc machines are classified
into the following group:
a) separately excited and
b) self excited
 DC machines may have one or more field windings and their method of
excitation, determines the performance characteristics of the dc machine.
 a) Separately Excited
Its field winding consists of several hundreds turns
of fine wire and is connected to a separate or
external dc source i.e. field winding are energized
from an independent external sources of dc current.
The voltage of the external dc source has no
relation with the armature voltage, i.e. the field
winding energized from a separate supply, can be
designed for any convenient voltage.
Vbrush
Rf Ra Load
max
Iag
Vf If Eag Vdc

Mechanical Electrical
power in power out

Fig. Equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc generator.

Eag  Vdc  I ag Ra  Vbrush
 b) Self Excitation
When the field winding is excited by its own armature, the machines is said
to be a self excited DC machine.
In these machines, the field poles must have a residual magnetism, so that
when the armature rotates, a residual voltage appears across the brushes.
This residual voltage should establish a current in the field winding so as to
reinforce the residual flux.
According the connection of the field winding with the armature winding, a
self-excited DC machine can be sub-divided as follows:
i. Series Excitation
ii. Shunt Excitation and
iii. Compound Excitation
 1. Series Excitation dc generator
The field winding consists of a few turns of
thick wire and is connected in series with the
armature.
In other words, the series field current
depends on the armature current and in view of
this; a series field may be called a current
operated field. Fig. Series excited dc machine
 2. Shunt Excitation dc generator
The field winding consists of a large
number of turns of fine wire and is
connected in parallel (or in shunt) with
the armature.
Therefore the voltage across the armature
terminals and the shunt field is the same Fig. Shunt excited dc machine
and it is for this reason that a shunt field
may be called voltage operated field.
Remember that series field and shunt
field windings are characterized by low
and high resistance respectively.
 3. Compound Excitation dc generator
A compound excitation involves both series-exited winding and the shunt-
excited winding.
From the view point of connections, a dc compound machine may have short-
shunt connection or a long shunt connection.
In short shunt connection of fig. below(a) the shunt field or voltage excited
winding is connected across the armature terminals.

Fig. (a) Short-Shunt Compound

Vi) Pdel=VL*IL
In long-shunt connection, the shunt field is connected across the series connection
of the armature and series winding or the machine or line terminals as shown in
fig (b) .
However there is no appreciable difference in the operating characteristics of
short-shunt and long shunt.

Fig. (b) Long-Shunt Compound

In a compound machine, the magnetic flux produced
by the shunt field is stronger than the series field.
When the series field aids the shunt field, so that the
resultant air gap flux per pole is increases then the
machine is said to be cumulatively compounded.
In the figure the direction of arrows corresponds to
Fig. Cumulatively Compound
the direction magnetic flux produced by the shunt
and series field windings.
As the two arrows are in the same direction in the
first fig. this figure is for a cumulatively compound
DC machine.
On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt
field so that the resultant air gap flux per pole is
decreased, the machine is called a differentially
compound DC machine as shown in the second Fig. Differentially Compound
figure.
 Armature Windings
Armature windings can be divided into two groups, depending on how the
wires are joined to the commentator. These are called (lap windings) and
(wave windings) .
A) The Lap Winding
The simplest type of winding construction used in modern DC machines is the
simplex lap winding. A simplex lap winding is a rotor (armature) winding
consisting of coils containing one or more turns of wire with the two end of each
coil coming out at adjacent commentator segments.
Lap winding is used in machines designed for low voltage and high current
applications.
Armatures are constructed with large wire because of high current
The number of current paths in a machine is :
 a=mp lap winging,
Where: a : number of current path in the rotor.
m : multiplex of the windings (1,2,3,etc….)
p : number of poles on the machines.
Lap wound generators produce high current, low voltage output.

Figure . Lap-wound DC machine

 B) The Wave Winding
The wave winding is an alternative way to connect the rotor (armature) coils to
the commutator segments.
In this simplex wave winding, every other rotor coil connects back to a
communtator segment adjacent to the beginning of the first coil. Therefore, there
are two coils in series between the adjacent commutator segments.
Furthermore, since each pair of coils between adjacent segments has a side
under each pole face, all output voltage are the sum of the effects of every pole,
and there can be no voltage imbalances.
 Wave windings, generators produce higher-voltage, low current outputs , since
the number of coils in series between commutator segments permits a high
voltage to be built up more easy than with lap windings.
a= 2m multiplex wave

Fig. Wave wound DC machine

 5.3 EMF EQUATION OF DC GENERATOR
Let 𝛟 = flux per pole in Weber
Z = total number of armature conductors
= Number of slots × Number of conductors per slot
P = Number of poles
a = number of parallel paths in armature
N= armature rotation in revolutions per minute (rpm)
E = emf induced in any parallel path in armature
Generated emf, Eg= emf generated in one of the parallel path
𝑑𝛟
Average emf generated / conductor = , 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑡
Now, flux cut / conductor in one revolution, 𝑑ϕ=ϕP ,wb
𝑁 60
Number of revolution / second= ,second, dt = second
60 𝑁
 Hence according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction emf generated
𝑑𝛟 𝛟𝑃𝑁
/ conductor = = , volts
𝑑𝑡 60

For wave winding For lap winding

Number of parallel path a= 𝑃
Number of parallel path a = 2
Number of conductors (in series) in
Number of conductors (in series) in 𝑍
one path=Z/2 one path =
𝑃
𝜙𝑃𝑁 𝑍
∴ emf generated / path ∴ emf generated/path = ∗
60 𝑃
𝝓𝑷𝑵 𝒁 𝝓𝑷𝑵𝒁 𝝓𝒁𝑵
= ∗ = , 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕 = volt
𝟔𝟎 𝟐 𝟐𝒙𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎

In general,the generated emf,

𝝓𝒁𝑵 𝑷
𝑬𝒈 = × = 𝑲𝒂 𝝓𝑵 Where, a=2 for wave winding
𝟔𝟎 𝒂
a=P for lap winding
𝑍𝑃
𝐾𝑎 =
60.𝑎
 Example:
A long-shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 50 A at 500 V and has armature,
series field and shunt field resistances of 0.05, 0.03 and 250 𝛀 respectively. Calculate the
generated voltage and the armature current. Allow 1 V per brush for contact drop.
Solution:-
𝑉 500
𝐼𝑠𝑕 = = =2A
𝑅𝑠ℎ 250
Current through armature and series winding is
𝐼𝑎 = 50 + 2 =52 A
Voltage drop on series field winding
=𝑅𝑠𝑒 × 𝐼𝑎 = 0.03 × 52 = 1.56 𝑉
Armature voltage drop
𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 52 × 0.05 = 2.6 𝑉
Drop at brushes= 2 × 1 = 2 𝑉
Then, 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 + 𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝
= 500 + 2.6 + 1.56 + 2 = 506.16 𝑉
Exercise:
1. A 6-pole d.c. machines has 300 conductors and each conductor is capable of
carrying 80 A without excessive temperature rise. The flux per pole is 0.015-Wb
and the machine is driven at 1800 r.p.m. Compute the total emf and power
developed in the armature , if the armature conductors are:
a) lap connected and
b) wave connected
2. A 220-V compound generator is supplying a load of 100-A at 220-V. The
resistance of its armature, shunt and series windings are 0.1 Ω , 50Ω and 0.06 Ω
respectively. Find the induced emf and the armature current when the machine is
connected as:
a) Short-shunt
b) Long-shunt
 5.4 Characteristics of dc generators
The behavior of various types of dc generators can be studies by their characteristic.
The three most important characteristic curves of a dc generator are:
1. Magnetization characteristic or open Magnetization characteristic or open - circuit
characteristic (O.C.C.) (𝐸𝑔 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑓 )
 shows the relationship between the field current 𝐼𝑓 and the generated emf Eg at no
load and at constant given speed.
2. External characteristic (𝑉𝑡 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝐿 )
shows the relationship between the terminal voltage Vt across the load and the
current 𝐼𝐿 flowing in the external load circuit.
3. Internal characteristic (𝐸𝑔 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑎 )
Shows the relationship between the emf generated Eg (after allowing for
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction) at load and the armature current Ia.
 Magnetization characteristic (O.C.C.)
The emf generated in the armature winding of
a dc machine under no load condition is given
by

Where P, Z and a are constants for a particular

generator, hence at constant given speed,
Eg ∝ 𝜙
Therefor 𝐸𝑔 is directly proportional to the flux
per pole ,which in turns depends upon the field From the figure
current 𝐼𝑓 .
AB- Unsaturated Region( Straight Line)
The characteristic curve plotted between
generated emf Eg and the field current If at BC- Knee of the curve( Operating
constant speed of rotation is called the
Region)
magnetization curve or O.C.C. of the dc
generator. CD- Saturated Region
 2. External characteristics
The external characteristics of a dc generator express the relationship
between the terminal voltage and the load current at a constant speed
and with the field current keeping the same as under the no load
condition.
The shape of this curve depends upon:
i. The armature reaction
ii. Voltage drop in the armature winding, series ,inter pole and
compensating windings
iii. Voltage drop at the brush contact (0.8-1.0V per brush ) and
iv. The drop in terminal voltage due to (i) and (ii) results in a decreased
field current which further reduces the induced emf.
 External characteristics of separately excited dc generator
In separately excited generators, the field current is independent of the load
current.
If there were no armature reaction and no voltage drop in various windings the
terminal voltage will be equal to the generated emf and would be constant for
various values of load current as indicated by curve I in fig 6.
However, the armature reaction will cause a decrease in the voltage, which
depends upon the load current.
Considering the effect of armature action only, the curve of terminal voltage
verses armature current will be slightly drooping as shown by curve II in fig (6).
Curve II of the generator, which takes into account the effect of armature
reaction, gives to a different scale the emf induced in the armature and thus, it is
normally called the internal characteristics of the generator.
The curve of terminal voltage verses load current or armature current is obtained
by subtracting the ohmic drop in the armature winding with respect to the
armature current is represented by the straight line passing through the origin.
When the ordinates of straight line representing the voltage drop in the armature
winding (IaRa) are deducted from those of curve II, a curve III is obtained, which
given the external characteristic of the generator i.e. Curve III = Curve II - IaRa

External characteristics clearly indicate

that the terminal voltage falls as load on
the generator increase.

Fig (6) external characteristics

of separately excited generator
External characteristics of shunt-wound excited dc generator
External characteristics of series-wound excited dc generator

Curve I, in Fig. 8, shows the magnetization characteristics of the same generator. The
voltage drop between the curves I and II is caused by armature reaction .
 5.5 Parallel Operation of DC Generators
In a dc power plant, power is usually supplied from several generators
of small ratings connected in parallel instead of from one large generator.
This is due to the following reasons:
1. Continuity of service: If a single large generator is used in the power plant,
then in case of its breakdown, the whole plant will be shutdown. However, if
power is supplied from a number of small units operating in parallel, then in
case of failure of one unit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by
other healthy units.
2. Efficiency: Generators run most efficiently when loaded to their rated
capacity. Therefore, when load demand on power plant decreases, one or
more generators can be shut down and the remaining units can be
efficiently loaded.
3. Increasing plant capacity: In the modern world of increasing
population, the use of electricity is continuously increasing. When added
capacity is required, the new unit can be simply paralleled with the old
units.
4. Maintenance and repair: Generators generally require routine
maintenance and repair. Therefore, if generators are operated in parallel, the
routine or emergency operations can be performed by isolating the
affected generator while load is being supplied by other units. This leads to
both safety and economy.
5. Non-availability of single large unit: In many situations, a single unit of
desired large capacity may not be available. In that case a number of smaller
units can be operated in parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally a
single large unit is more expensive.
 Connecting Shunt Generators in Parallel
The generators in a power plant are connected in parallel through bus-bars.
The bus-bars are heavy thick copper bars and they act as +ve and -ve
terminals. The positive terminals of the generators are connected to the +ve
side of bus-bars and negative terminals to the negative side of bus-bars. Fig.
(9) shows shunt generator 1 connected to the bus-bars and supplying load.
When the load on the power plant increases beyond the capacity of this
generator, the second shunt generator 2 is connected in parallel with the first
to meet the increased load demand.
 LOAD

Fig.9. Parallel operation of shunt generators

 Procedure for paralleling of Generator 2 with Generator 1
a. The prime mover of generator 2 is brought up to the rated speed.

b. Next circuit breaker CB-2 is closed and the excitation of generator 2 is

adjusted till it generates voltage equal to the bus-bars voltage. This is indicated
by voltmeter V2.

c. Now the generator 2 is ready to be paralleled with generator 1. The main

switch dpst G2 is closed, thus putting generator 2 in parallel with
generator1.Note that generator 2 is not supplying any load because its
generated emf is equal to bus-bars voltage. The generator is said to
be“floating”(i.e. not supplying any load) on the bus-bars.
d. If generator 2 is to deliver any current, then its generated voltage E should
be greater than the bus-bars voltage V. In that case, current supplied by it
is I = (E- V)/Ra where Ra is the resistance of the armature circuit. By
increasing the field current (and hence induced emf E), the generator 2 can
be made to supply proper amount of load.
e. The load may be shifted from one shunt generator to another merely by
adjusting the field excitation. Thus if generator 1 is to be shut down, the whole
load can be shifted onto generator 2 provided it has the capacity to supply
that load. In that case, reduce the current supplied by generator 1to zero (This
will be indicated by ammeter A1) open C.B.-1 and then open the main switch
S1.
 Load Sharing in DC Generators
The load sharing between shunt generators in parallel can be easily regulated
because of their drooping characteristics. The load may be shifted from
one generator to another merely by adjusting the field excitation. Let us
discuss the load sharing of two generators which have unequal no-load
voltages. Let E1, E2 = no-load voltages of the two generators R1, R2 = their
armature resistances V = common terminal voltage (Bus-bars voltage).
Then,

Thus current output of the generators depends upon the values of E1 and E2.
These values may be changed by field rheostats. The common terminal
voltage(or bus-bars voltage) will depend upon (i) the emf of individual
generators and (ii) the total load current supplied. It is generally desired
to keep the bus-bars voltage constant. This can be achieved by adjusting
the field excitations of the generators operating in parallel.