Transmission Lines PDF

Transmission Line
Analysis
Transmission Line Analysis 2
The propagation velocity of a wave is given by
The propagation constant is given by
Then
Higher frequencies imply decreasing wavelengths.

The consequence for a RF circuit is that voltages and currents no
longer remain spatially uniform when compared to the geometry
size of the discrete circuit elements and, consequently, the
voltages and current have to be treated as propagating waves.
Since Kirchhoff’s voltages and current laws do not account for
these spatial variations, we must significantly modify the
conventional lumped circuit analysis
The purpose of this section is to outline the physical reason for
transitioning from lumped to distributed to electronic circuit.
Why transmission line theory?

Experiment 1: Measure the
voltage between point A and
B if the frequency of the
generator is set to 1 MHz.
Consider that l =1.5 cm.
Assume that the dielectric
constant between the two 9ε0 , µ0
wires is ε=9 εo and the
permeability µ=µo . vp
The velocity of propagation is

The relationship between the length

and the wavelength is
9ε0 , µ0
For this case VA-VB≈0. vp
Experiment 2: Measure the

voltage between point A and
B if the frequency of the
generator is set to 10 GHz.
Consider that l =1.5 cm.
9ε0 , µ0
vp
The relationship between the length

and the wavelength is
For this case the experiments reveal
that VA-VB≠0.
For high frequencies in VG, it is observed that the voltage at

intermediates points between A and B varies.
10ε0 , µ0
vp
This behavior contradicts Kirchhoff’s law. Since the application of

this law to a wire of resistance equal to 0 ohms will result that the
voltage between the two point should be zero.
Consequently, we need find a new theory to work for these cases.
This will lead us to the study of transmission lines.
Conceptually, this can be explained if we introduce “waves” into

the functionality of the circuit.
The generator will send a wave towards the load
The resistance RL will reflect a wave towards the generator
The effects of these two wave will create a “standing” wave
(interference between the two waves)
This standing wave is the reason for the different voltages between A
and B
Reflected wave
Wave created by
the generator
To fully understand the problem we will need to derive some Eqs.

Examples of transmission line

Two-wire line
The main drawback for this configuration is that the magnetic

field and the electric field lines emanating from the conductors
extend to infinity and thus influence electronic equipment in the
vicinity of the line (RF is not contained)
Application: Connect a TV set to a private antenna (i.e.
house/building)
Coaxial Line
Magnetic
Field
Electric
Field
Usually the outer conductor is grounded thus minimizing

radiation and field interference (RF is contained.)
Application: It is used for almost all cases of externally
connected RF Systems and test equipment.
Microstrip Lines
It is common practice to use planar printed circuit boards

(PCBs) to implement most electronic systems.
In RF circuits, we need to consider the high frequency
behavior of the conducting strips etched on the PCBs.
The ground plane below the current carrying conductor
traces helps prevent excessive field leakage and thus
reduces radiation.
Microstrip Lines
Magnetic
Field
ࣕ࢘ Electric
Field
One of the disadvantages of single layered PCBs is that they

have rather high radiation loss and are prone to “crosstalk”
(interference) between neighboring conductor traces.
The severity of field leakage depends on the relative
dielectric constants.
Direct comparison of the field line suggest that to achieve

high board density of the component layout, we should use
substrates with high dielectric constants.
Strip Lines
Magnetic
Field
Electric
Field
This configuration reduces interference because the RF

signal is contained by the two ground planes.
A drawback of this configuration is that vias are required to
go from the top or bottom planes (where the components
are located) to the inner conductor.
Vias produce disturbances to the wave propagation and
have to be carefully design.
Equivalent Circuit Representation

For high frequencies, voltages and currents are no longer
spatially constant.
As a consequence, Kirchhoff’s voltage and circuit laws cannot
be applied over the macroscopic line dimensions.
This problem can be circumvented when the transmission line
is broken down into smaller (infinitesimally small) segments.
Between x and x+∆x, each conductor (1 and 2) is described by

a series resistor and inductor (R1∆x, L1∆x and R2∆x, L2 ∆x). In
addition, the charge separation created by conductors 1 and 2
gives rise to a capacitive effect denoted by C ∆x. Recognizing
that all dielectric suffer losses we need to include a
conductance G ∆x
Generic Electrical Circuit Representation for a Segment

of a Transmission Line
The resistances and inductances of the two conductors are

usually combined into single elements.
It should be noted that R, L, C and G are frequency-
dependent parameters.
R: resistance per unit length, L: inductance per unit length,
C: capacitance per unit length, G: conductance per unit length
Advantages of the electric circuit representation of a TL:

Provides a clear intuitive physical picture
Permits the analysis with Kirchhoff’s laws
Provides building blocks that allow the expansion from
microscopic to macroscopic forms.
Transmission Lines in the Time Domain

Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law
For ∆x -> 0
Applying Kirchoff’s current law
For ∆x -> 0
Lossless Transmission Lines in the Time Domain

For lossless transmission line:
Then
Wave Equations in
the time domain
The solutions to the wave equations are:
Note: The derivation on how to find i(x,t) is in next page.
v+
v-
i+
i-
Zo is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.

Summary The velocity of propagation is given by
The characteristic impedance is given by
Taking into account the above equations, we can write

For a coaxial transmission line, it can be proven that
Characteristic
Impedance
*C: capacitance per unit length; L: inductance per unit length

It can be observed that the characteristic impedance is a function
of the dimension of the cylinders and also of the dielectric material.
Note that Velocity of
Propagation
For a two wire line, it can be proven that
Characteristic
Impedance
*C: capacitance per unit length; L: inductance per unit length

It can be observed that the characteristic impedance is a function
of the radius a of the wire and the separation D between the wires.
Note that
Velocity of
Propagation
For a microstrip line it can be proven that Z0 can be approximated by
Where
Characteristic
Impedance
Empirical
Formulas
The reason for εeff is that there electric field in air and in the dielectric.
For this first approximation, it has been assumed that the thickness t
of the conductor is negligible compared with the substrate height h.
The assumption of zero thickness (t) of the microstrip line may not
be valid and a correction to the preceding equations are needed.
The effect of nonzero copper strip thickness is approximated as an
increased in effective with weff.
The velocity of propagation can be written as,
The characteristic impedance is given by:
Then:
To reduce Zo, we need to increase the capacitance.

Example
Sinusoidal steady-state
The general solution for a transmission line is given by
The solution in sinusoidal steady-state is give by:
The propagation constant is given by:

Using complex number notation, the equation
can be written as
Defining the phasor
Defining A and B are complex numbers
Then When working with sinusoidal

and steady-state sources, it is
highly convenient to work with
Similarly, it can be proven that phasors. Using the equations
above, we can go back to the
time domain.
Change in reference plane
For transmission problems it is convenient to show the load at

distance 0 and the source at the distance l from the load
Taking into account that
where
Summary
Reflection coefficient
For d=0
Input Impedance
Input Impedance (Cont.)
Impedance
Transformer
A transmission line changes a
load impedance to another
value of impedance at its input
Input Impedance (Cont.)
Short
Circuit
Open
Circuit
Matching
Summary
Return Loss
Practical circuit realizations always suffer a certain degree of
“mismatch” between the load impedance and the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line.
This mismatch is customarily defined as the return loss
Example. Calculate RL. Assume that ZG=61.5Ω Zin=50 Ω.
in
Example. Calculate RL at d=0. Assume that Zl=75 Ω Z0=50 Ω.
As it can be observed a decent return loss (14 dB) can be

achieved with a relatively “large” mismatch between the
characteristic impedance and the load.
Example: Consider a transmission line with Zo=50 Ω with the

following load: infinity, 350 Ω, 150 Ω, 83.33 Ω, and 50 Ω.
(a) Calculate
(b) Plot
Solution:
(a) Calculate
(b) Plot
For the example, α=0

VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio)

The addition of two traveling waves traveling in opposite direction
produces a standing-wave pattern. This is a sinusoidal function of time
whose amplitude is a function of positon
Complex Plane
min max
VSWR (Cont.)
By definition, the VSWR is given by
VSWR (Cont.)
Example: Calculate VSWR for the following cases
Example: For a short circuit transmission line, calculate and plot

|V(d)|, and v(d,t). Assume that A1 is a real positive number.
Example: For the circuit shown in the figure

(a) Find Γ0, Zin , and VSWR
(b) Find V(λ/8), I(λ/8), and P(λ/8)
(c) Find V(0), I(0) and P(0)
(d) Find l=λ/8) in cm at f= 1 GHz
Solution: (a) Find Γ0, Zin , and VSWR
.
Soltion: (b) Find V(λ/8), I(λ/8), P(λ/8)

Soltion: (c) Find V(0), I(0), P(0)
A1 is not known
Soltion: (d) Find l=λ/8 in cm at f= 1 GHz

Source and Loaded Transmission Line

Thus far our discussion has only relied on the transmission line
and its termination through a load impedance.
In completing our investigation we need to attach a source to the
lines.
This results in the added complication of not only having to deal
with an impedance mismatch between transmission line and load
but also having to take into consideration a possible line-to-
source mismatch as well.
The input voltage at the input

of the transmission line can
be written as
Note that only a fraction of VG

generates Vin.
The input reflection coefficient
is given by
Also (as we previously showed)
As we can observe only a part of Vin+ comes from Vin. This fact
leads to the definition of transmitter coefficient.
Transmission Coefficient
Definition
Then
Reflection Coefficient a the Source
Since the voltage reflected from the load is traveling toward the
source, we need to consider a mismatch between the
transmission line and the source impedance (ZG).
The source reflection coefficient is defined as
Input
Voltage
Source Reflec.
Coefficient
Source
Impedance
Input Reflection Input

Coefficient Impedance
Output Reflec. Output

Load Reflec. Load

Input Transmission
Coefficient
Source and Loaded Transmission Line Analysis

Source and Loaded Transmission Line Analysis (Cont.)

Source and Loaded Transmission Line Analysis (Cont.)

General Transmission Line Equations

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws to the electrical
model of small section of a transmission lines leads to:
Then
From (1)
From (2)
From (4)
=>
and (5)
From (4)
From (3)
Then =>
Summarizing:
where
These are the wave equations for voltages and currents.

The solution of these equations are:
The terms V+ e-kx and I+ e-kx represents waves moving in the “+” direction of x
The terms V- e+kx and I- e+kx represents waves moving in the “-” direction of x
Characteristic Impedance Definition
Also (from previous page)
Then
The characteristic impedance is defined as :

Lossless Transmission Line Model

For this case R=0 and G=0. The transmission line model reduces to:
The characteristic impedance is reduced to
Note that the transmission line does not have losses because
there are no resistive elements to dissipate power.
Appendix: Transmission Line in the time domain

Consider that at t=0+ the switch is closed.
I(z,t)
+
V(z,t)
At time t=0+, the generator Vo will send a wave towards the load (RL)
It will take a time T=l/vp for the wave to arrive to RL
At t=0+, we will only have a wave going towards the load (V+)
The equations below have to be satisfied at any time t or position z
At t=0+
and
and
The calculation of V+ can be done with the following circuit.
Conclusion:
At time t=0, the voltage at z=0
is not affected by the load RL
At t=T+=(l/vp)+
I=
Since and
V=
Voltage Reflection ГL
Coefficient at the Load I=
V=
Current Reflection
Coefficient at the Load
At t=2T+=2(l/vp)+
I=
V= From the analysis at t=0,
Гg
I=
Voltage Reflection
Coefficient at the V=
Source
Current Reflection
Coefficient at the
Source
Summary
Particular Cases:
RL=0Ω => short circuit => ГL=-1 => V+ is completely reflected
RL→∞ => open circuit => ГL= 1 => V+ is completely reflected
RL=ZoΩ => matched => ГL= 0 => There is no reflection (V-=0 )
Example: At t=0+ the switch is closed
(a) Calculate the voltage at the voltage at z=0 at t=0/
(b) Calculate the voltage and current reflection coefficients a the load
(c) Calculate the voltage and current reflection coeff. a the generator
(d) Draw the bounce diagram for voltages
(e) Plot V(z=0, t) vs. t

(f) Plot V(z=l, t) vs. t

(g) Plot V(z=l/2, t) vs. t

(h) Plot I(z=0, t) vs. t

(h) Plot I(z=l, t) vs. t

(h) Plot I(z=l/2, t) vs. t

(g) Plot V(z, t) vs. z at t=2.5µs

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Transmission Line

The propagation velocity of a wave is given by

The propagation constant is given by

Higher frequencies imply decreasing wavelengths.

Why transmission line theory?

The velocity of propagation is

The relationship between the length

Experiment 2: Measure the

The relationship between the length

For high frequencies in VG, it is observed that the voltage at

This behavior contradicts Kirchhoff’s law. Since the application of

Conceptually, this can be explained if we introduce “waves” into

To fully understand the problem we will need to derive some Eqs.

Examples of transmission line

The main drawback for this configuration is that the magnetic

Usually the outer conductor is grounded thus minimizing

It is common practice to use planar printed circuit boards

One of the disadvantages of single layered PCBs is that they

Direct comparison of the field line suggest that to achieve

This configuration reduces interference because the RF

Equivalent Circuit Representation

Between x and x+∆x, each conductor (1 and 2) is described by

Generic Electrical Circuit Representation for a Segment

The resistances and inductances of the two conductors are

Advantages of the electric circuit representation of a TL:

Transmission Lines in the Time Domain

Applying Kirchoff’s current law

Lossless Transmission Lines in the Time Domain

The solutions to the wave equations are:

Note: The derivation on how to find i(x,t) is in next page.

Zo is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.

Summary The velocity of propagation is given by

The characteristic impedance is given by

Taking into account the above equations, we can write

For a coaxial transmission line, it can be proven that

*C: capacitance per unit length; L: inductance per unit length

For a two wire line, it can be proven that

*C: capacitance per unit length; L: inductance per unit length

For a microstrip line it can be proven that Z0 can be approximated by

The velocity of propagation can be written as,

The characteristic impedance is given by:

To reduce Zo, we need to increase the capacitance.

The general solution for a transmission line is given by

The solution in sinusoidal steady-state is give by:

The propagation constant is given by:

Using complex number notation, the equation

Defining A and B are complex numbers

Then When working with sinusoidal

Change in reference plane

For transmission problems it is convenient to show the load at

Input Impedance (Cont.)

Input Impedance (Cont.)

Example. Calculate RL. Assume that ZG=61.5Ω Zin=50 Ω.

Example. Calculate RL at d=0. Assume that Zl=75 Ω Z0=50 Ω.

As it can be observed a decent return loss (14 dB) can be

Example: Consider a transmission line with Zo=50 Ω with the

For the example, α=0

VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio)

Example: For a short circuit transmission line, calculate and plot

Example: For the circuit shown in the figure

Solution: (a) Find Γ0, Zin , and VSWR

Soltion: (b) Find V(λ/8), I(λ/8), P(λ/8)

Soltion: (c) Find V(0), I(0), P(0)