Electrovalent Bonding

1. The tendency for atoms in compounds to achieve noble gas configuration with eight
electrons is called octet rule.

2. The ionic bond in LiF is formed by the transfer of an electron from a Li atom to a fluorine
atom.

3. The electrovalent bond (ionic bond) is the electrostatic attraction between two
oppositely charged ions.

4.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s23p6

Factor influencing the Formation of ions

1. Formation of cation: the lower the ionization energy of an atom or ion, the easier it
lose an electron to form cation.

2. Formation of anion: the more negative electron affinity, the greater the atom to
accept an electron and the more stable is the anion formed.

3. Formation of ionic compound

Lattice energy: energy liberated when one mole of a solid ionic compound is formed
from its component ions in the gaseous state.

Na+(g) + Cl-(g) à NaCl (s) Lattice energy: -788 kJ/mol

4. Lattice energy is exothermic. When elements is combined, the content of energy is

decreased.
energy

1. The process of changing a chlorine gas into Cl- in the gaseous state is exothermic process.
 ½ Cl2 (g) + e à Cl- (g) ∆H = -226.6 kJ/mol

2. The process of changing a sodium atom into Na+ in the gaseous state is endothermic
process.

Na(s) à Na+(g) + e ∆H = +603.1 kJ/mol

3. Gaseous sodium ion is less stable. Its can only be stabilized by combining:

Na+ (g) + Cl-(g) -> NaCl (s) ∆H = -788 kJ/mol (Lattice energy)

4. The net energy change when one mole of sodium chloride is formed from its elements.

Na(s) + ½ Cl2 (g) à NaCl (s) ∆H = -411.5 kJ/mol

A very stable ionic compound is formed when:

a) An element with low ionization energy combines with an element with a high electron
affinity.

b) The lattice energy of the compound formed is very high.

Covalent bonding: Sharing of Electrons

• When two non metallic atoms come together, electrostatic interactions begin to develop
between them.

• Attraction and repulsion between the electrons and the nuclei of the atoms happen.

• The forces just balance when the nuclei are at a particular distance apart called bond
length

• A diatomic molecule consists of two identical atoms joined together by a covalent.

• A pair of electrons in a covalent bond: bond pair.

Electron pairs in the valence shell that are not involved in bonding : lone pairs.

Exception To the Octet Rule

 F
F F
S
F F
Cl Be Cl F
Writing Dot-and Cross Formulae For Molecule with Multiples Bonds

1. Calculate the total number of valence electrons from all the atoms in the molecule or ion
given.

2. Arrange all the atoms surrounding the central atom by using a pair of electrons per bond.
The central atom is most often the atom which is least electronegative.

3. Assign the remaining electrons to the terminal atoms so that each terminal atom has eight
electrons.

4. Place any electrons left over on the central atom. Some atoms such as sulphur and
phosphorus, the central atom may have more than eight electrons.

5. Form multiple bonds if there are not enough electrons to give the central atom an octet of
electrons.
Covalent Bonds: Overlapping of Orbitals

Valence bonds theory

• When two atoms gets close together to form a covalent bond, the orbitals of the outer
shell of one atom overlap with the orbitals of the other atom.

• The overlapping of atomic orbitals give molecular orbitals.

• The pair of electrons in the covalent bond is shared between two atoms in the area where
the orbitals overlaps.

• The strength of the covalent bond is proportional to the area where the atomic orbitals
overlap.

• The larger of the area of overlap, the stronger the covalent bond.

Covalent Bonds: Overlapping of Orbitals

Hybrid atomic Orbitals

1. The process of mixing together two or more atomic orbitals that have similar energies is
called hybridization.

2. Types of hybrid orbitals:

a) sp3 (tetrahedral shape)

b) sp2 (trigonal planar shape)

c) sp (linear shape)
Methane, CH4
The simple view of the bonding in methane

                            
Electronic structure of carbon, 1s22s22px12py1.
You can see this more readily using the electrons-in-boxes notation.
Only the 2-level electrons are shown.
The 1s2 electrons are too deep inside the atom to be involved in bonding.
The only electrons directly available for sharing are the 2p electrons. Why then isn't
methane CH2?
Promotion of an electron                     

When bonds are formed,

energy is released and the system becomes more stable.

If carbon forms 4 bonds rather than 2,

twice as much energy is released and

so the resulting molecule becomes even more stable.

There is only a small energy gap between

the 2s and 2p orbitals, and so it pays the carbon

to provide a small amount of energy to promote

an electron from the 2s to the empty 2p

to give 4 unpaired electrons.

The extra energy released when the bonds form

more than compensates for the initial input.

Hybridisation
                    
The electrons rearrange themselves again
in a process called hybridisation.
This reorganises the electrons into
four identical hybrid orbitals called sp3 hybrids
(because they are made from one s orbital and
three p orbitals).
You should read "sp3" as "s p three" - not as "s
p cubed".
 The hydrogens bond with the two carbons
to produce molecular orbitals just as they did with methane.
The two carbon atoms bond by merging their remaining
sp3 hybrid orbitals end-to-end to make a new molecular orbital.
The bond formed by this end-to-end overlap is called
a sigma bond. The bonds between the carbons
and hydrogens are also sigma bonds.

                                                                                     

BF3, C2H4, C6H6

sp
Sp Hybridization Orbitals

Dimers
Electronegativities and Polar Molecules

1. Different elements have different abilities to attract electrons.

2. The ability of an atom that is covalently to another atom to attract a pair of electrons
to itself is called the electronegativities.

Non-Polar Covalent Bonds

1. Two identical atoms having the same electronegativites bonded covalently.

2. CO2, CCl4,BF3, C6H6, C6H12 are no polar molecules because the molecule are
symmetrical.
Polar Covalent Bonds

1. The bonding electrons will be attracted more strongly by the more electronegative
element and this results in an asymmetrical distribution of the bonding electrons.

2. The separation of charge in a polar covalent bond like H-Cl is called polarization.

3. When two electrical charges of opposite sing are separated by a small distance, a
dipole is established.

4. The size dipole is measured by its dipole moment (µ).

µ = charge x distance = Q x r ,

Unit (D)

Hydrogen Halide Dipole moment

HF 1.91

HCl 1.05

HBr 0.80

HI 0.42

Polar and Non Polar Molecules

 Molecules Dipole Polar @ Non Polar
Moment Molecule

HCl 1.05 Polar molecules

SO2 1.63 Polar molecules

CO2 0 Non-Polar molecules

C6H6 0 Non-Polar molecules

BF3 0 Non-polar molecules

C6H5Cl 1.67 Polar molecules

H2O 1.84 Polar molecules

Electronegativity and type of Chemical Bonds

Ionic Character in a Covalent Bond

The bonds between elements with a very
large difference in electronegativity is
ionic.

The bond between elements with similar

electronegativity may be polar or non
polar covalent.
Covalent Character and Ionic Bonds
The presence of dipoles gives ionic
character to polar covalent molecules.
When the polarity of the covalent
molecules increases, the ionic character
 also increases.

1. An ionic bond is formed if:

a) The cation has a large ionic radius

b) The anion has a small ionic radius

c) The cation or anion carries a low electrical charge

2. The distortion of the charge cloud of the negative ion by a neighboring positive ion is
called polarization and the negative ion is said to be polarized by the positive ion.

3. The polarizing Power A Cation depends on two factors its charge and its size.

a) The larger the positive charge on the cation, the greater is its attraction for the valence
electrons of the neighboring anion and the greater its polarizing.

b) The smaller the size of the positive ion, the larger its polarizing power.

Covalent Character and Ionic Bonds

1. These two factors combine to make up the charge density on the positive ion.

2. The charge density is the ratio of the charge on the positive ion to the ionic radius of the
ion.

3. Charge = (Charge/Ionic radius)

4. The greater the charge density on the positive ion, the greater its polarizing power and the
greater the covalent character of the bond it forms with a given negative ion.