THE FIELD a PRT Ng DaaContents Acknowledgements Introduction 1A The portance offild 1.2 Igneous rocks in relation to regional tectonics 13. Geological inerpretation of field work Id techniques Preliminary studies 22 Equipment 23° Field notes 24 Collecting specimens 2.5 The scale of observations Description of igneous rock outerops 3.1 Jointing 3.2. Veins and contacts Flow banding and igneous lamination Summary of field observations 4 Hand specimens and their interpretation Collecting field specimens Colour and composition QEAGLTAS 1985 552.1 5182 jpenen mend ISBN 0-471-93275.2 filet : laming field specimens ident Ubemy Coeroetang tn Publ 6 Inclusions fld ‘A catalogue record for this book is av specimens Printed and bound in Great Britain by Butler & Tanner London89 100 8 119 9 Mode of occurrence of igneous bodies 5.1 Volcanic rock units 5.2 Intrusive rock units Volcanic rocks 61 Minor intrusions 7.1 Dykes and sills 72. Voleanic plugs and diatremes 73. High-level subvolcanic intrusions 74. Summary of the field characteristics of minor intrusions Plutonic rocks I: the cale-alkaline association 8.1. Introduction to Chapters al 8.2 General features and occurrence 83 Metal eros mineralization 84 Distinctive granitoid textures 8.5 Metamorphic aureoles 8.6 Summary of the field ‘characteristics of cale-alkaline intrusions Plutonic rocks II: the alkaline association 9.1 Definitions, general ‘features and occurrence 92 Distinctive alkaline rock-types and their Se Suemanerof the field IB Senemariof the fc characteristics of alkaline inerasions 137 14 49 150 occurrence Continental maficculeramafic intrusions 10.3 Ophiolite complexes 10.4 Summary of the field characteristics of mafic- ultramafic intrusions Plutonic rocks IV: anorthositic asso. Anorthositic associations Charnockitic associations charnockitic intrusions 12. Metamorphism 12.1 Metamorphism of igneous rocks 12.2 Migmatite complexes References and further reading Index Appendix I (Inside back cover)Acknowledgements This book would not have been completed without the continued support and enthusiasm of staff at the Open U: ress, notably Howard Jones and Rose Dixon. We are particularly grateful to Dr. Mike de Fre ry Handbook Se icher and Dr. ast we thank the following for their valuable support during Leg Sanderson. or re matter appearing 100k was adapted from or inspired by the following sources to whom grateful acknowledgement is slo made" Fig. 3.4: FH. Lahee, Field Geology, McGra Copyright, British Geol enclaves, Ele eich and BJ. Skinner, Rocks and Rock Minera ¥ Figs. 4.4), 4.13(c): B. Atkin, Oxford 5.2:H. Williams and A.R. MeBirney, Voleanology, Freeman, Coop- er and Co. (1979) 5 ; ‘ Geophys. Res.79 6.17(a) K-H. Wohletz and M.F. Sheridan, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Paper Fig. 6.18: G.P.L. Walker, J. Geol. 79 (1971) and RSJ. Sparks and J.V. Wrig Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Paper 180 (1979) ‘ Walker, Geology 1 (1973); 7 Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 72196 Figs 7.2, 7.3, 7.5: J 4 |, W.S. Pitcherand P.A. DEE. Peterman H. Sillitoe, Geol. Ass. Canada Dietrich and B,J. Skinner, Rocks and Rock Minerals, Wiley (1979); Fig. 8.13: J. Eastwood, Geology of Cockermouth and Caldbeck, HMSO (1968); Fig. 9.2: G. Rocei, Notes Bur. Rech. a Daker 6 (1960); Fig. 9.3: E. Sacther, Kong 10.2, 10.4: C.A. Lee, J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 138 Sharpe, . Geol. Soc. Lond. 138 (1981) College of Wales, Swansea; Fi 11.3: J. Duchesne and D. Dem: 41.1 The importance of fieldwork ‘geochemical Tected in interpreted without observations of the field relationships between collected samples and of the geology of areas in which measure- ments were made. There are many instances in which expensive geochem- ical and geophy: misinterpreted incomplete knowledge of basic field relationships. Therefore, if the appreciation of field ‘geology is poor, then all studies based on cold sp ‘ments will be equally poor. Converse- ly, good appreciation of field geology forms the basis of good geological Interpretation galtned in Basic Geological Mapping chemical and. isotopic analysis determine the age and origin of the Fock samples, and the use of ge0- 1 Introduction physical measurements in the fed to determine the distribution of rock. round. Also, yas rocks are associated with di pes of economic mine ways discovered and evaluated by field work, For all of these purposes, an appreciation ofthe Field Coaectersics ed fell lator ‘hips of studied samples essential, Ta bandtock "we explain how from the sae of hand spe cuterops to that of regional field relationships; these observations i vide the foundations upon which most other studies of igneous rocks are based. es 12. Igneous rocks in’ relation to ¢ resioceltectoues Igneous rocks are materials that have solidified from molten or partially molten material, ermed magma. Such rocks may be classified as eave Finerasive rocks the ‘mineral com, they range from darkccoloured, or melenocratie rocks rich in ferromagnesian minerals (€.8- ivine and pyroxen in felsic minerals (€.. feldspars and quartz). Also, in terms ofgrain size they range from fine-grained rocks, in which indivi cannot be distinguished fe, 10 rocks in which individual Crystals are visible, which are termed medium-grained (mean grain size To5mm or coarse-grained (mean grain je > Smm). ‘The classification of igneous rocks is discussed in detail in Chapter 4 Igneous rocks of different compo: sitions and field relationships exist in well-defined associations in which the rocks involved tend to occur in specific regions of the continental and oceanic crust and show a distinctive relat ship to the surrounding rocks. This reflects the mode of formation and emplacement of igneous rocks in the context of regional tectonic patterns; therefore the following text describes the characteristics of igneous rock associations in relationship to regional "The Earth's crust forms the u most part of the outer rigid shel ithosphere, of the Earth and is divided to large coherent ‘plates’ that move in relation to one another. Although it is anticipated that most readers will be familiar with the principles of plate tectonics, and although this book is essentially 2 field guide, a brief sum: mary of plate tectonics provides a helpful framework for understanding the concepts of igneous rock associ ations and their relationship to one another. However, plate tectonic ‘models are based on global geoph cal data and syntheses of many re al geological studies. Regional studies ‘commonly involve areas with dimen sions measured in terms of km? or tens cof km#, whereas tectonic plates are ‘commonly thousands of kin? in size. fe therefore, be quite impossible to ee elem ae of 2 fgneous rock unambiguously toa part cular plate tectonic setting. The boundaries beoween plates are of four types constructive plate margins or where the oceanic por- es are moving spar, 50 iting the upwelling and s cation of magma (i) destructive plate margins, which mark ‘places where two plates are converging so. that one plate sinks below the is eventually orbed into the mantle or ‘destroy~ This process is accompanied by the mantle, on ing lithospheric slab. Such plate margins may occur on oceanic or continental lithosphere forming, respectively, island ares and active roative plate margins are fauls where two plates slide past exch other, so that lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed, and igneous ity is quantitatively minor collision zones, where two inents have fed so that subduction of oceanic: hhas ceased, Such areas are characterized by able afer colision, Over 99% by volume of igneous activity occurs at constructive and destructive plate margins and at col- ‘zones and some occurs at loca- ‘within the plates, for example volcanoes, such as those of Hawaii and those associated with the East African rife system Igneous activity may be classified according to its plate tectonic setting as shown in Table’ 1.1 rifting) Continental c Basalt-andesite-rhyolite* Gabbro-diorite-granite* Oceanic Collision zone and continent-island Continent-continent Dacite-rhyolite Granite indesite (in island andesite-dacite- Destructive active continental margin) rhyolite (in active arcs); diorite, granodiorite Island are (gradation to continental margins) Gabbro-diorite (in island and granite (in active continental margins) PLATE MARGIN ridge (large basin) Classification of igneous activity in relation to plate tectonic setting Ocean rich rock types may also be found in within-plate settings Constructive Marginal basin (back-arc spreading centre) Table 1.1 "These rock types have a distinctly different composition and mineralogy from the analogous rock types formed at plate margins, and a range of rarer alkaliTaneous aciviy a consratve plate rargins is responsible for the form- tion of the oceanic crust. The com- ition and structure of the oceanic Erust is known from the study of rocks dredged from the ocean floor, from Sseismic-studies which have shown that the crust has a layered structure, and from studies of sequences of older rocks that are believed to be fragments ‘of the oceanic crust. These lines of ‘evidence indicate that the oceanic c1 consists of layers of basalt lv. ‘dolerite dykes, gabbro and peridot These rocks form a distinctive associ ation which may be recognized ancient orogenic belts, where it_is termed the ophiolite association. The ition of such associ ithosphere sway from the oceanic ridge by the process ‘of sea-floor spreading and is gener returned to the mantle ata destructive pplate margin within ca. 200 Ma. The descent of oceanic lithosphere into the mantle ‘magmas ranging in composition baal, through andesite to rhyolite in composition. These intrude the crust and may be erupted at the surface or emplaced at depth as gabbro, dio granite. In some places, the emplacement of such rocks caus melting lower crust and results in the emplacement of intr iorite and granite composi tructive continental margins, accom- panied by eruption of andesite, dacite and thyolite, The intasive rocks ‘emplaced at active continental margins form linear bels of intrusive. com: 4 plexes of diorite-granite composition, fermed baths, which ae believed to be underlain by metamorphic rocks. i association is therefore of destructive plate ‘margins and is described in Chapter 8. ‘The composition of the continental crust broadly resembles that of the igneous rocks of andesite composition. Much of continental crust is thought to have thin veneer Because of have a complex structure characterized by rapid lateral and vertical variation, and uplifed sections from which the Sedimentary veneer has been eroded expose sections of a wide variety of ‘igneous rocks emplaced at great depth including metamor- phosed igneous complexes (Chapter ‘may have dis- ‘occurrence, for ind as_concordant gabbroic intrusions {Chapter 8), Such igneous rocks may ave characteristic compositions; indeed, many magmas emplaced at locations withig a plate have distine. tive alkali-rch chemical compositions hich may be reflected in their min logy (Chapter 9 describes the alkaline intrusive association). ton of this field guide he occurrence of igneous characteristic crustal regions. Table 1.1 provides a Summary of the relationship between igneous rock associat tectonics. Chapters 2 approach to ma duced in Chapter 5. 12 consider the chars igneous geological and tectonic cont 1.3, Geological interpretation of field work igneous rocks in the field ent strategies. For study may be pursued recorded impart field work, an made on evidence. oking for particular ing evidence for, -ompletely approach, field work may quite leit- imately be planned to ‘prove’ or ‘disprove’ a» particular hypothe: These two strategies are complement- ary, and in practice should be ac- ‘companied by formulation and revi- sion of workin hypotheses. When work (and other geo- bee the mining geolog ‘The geologist must _not devote himself to any one theory oF the facts that support ‘enough to fall hopelessly in love with it, He must_make each theory the object of a summer flirtation and not a wife — and he rust be ready t ¥€ moment a more attractive ‘maiden comes along. (Ira B. Joralemom (1940), Mining ‘Congeess Journal pp.35-6) How this occurs will depend upon personal preference and experience (which cannot be gained from a book university course!). So, during work, you should think continu ally about the significance of field observations without adopting permanent value even if ‘cance is not appreciated in the field. ‘Remember that the approach you adopt and the interpretation of field data that you make will depend upon your experience, and reflect your Knowledge of regional geology and rock associations. Interpretation of field observations requires a knowl- edge of field associations but knowl- edge of such associations depends on feological fieldwork. Such work is | Based on careful systematic field study) 8‘of rocks, and this handbook describes how to approach the study of igneous { rocks in the field. P hhundreds of km?) all ield traverses, or detal- ed mapping of a small area (perhaps a few km’) based upon particular des- cription of, some proj map of an area may be used to samples from different rock uni thin section study and/or chemical analysis. Although these aims and objectives are clearly varied, emphasized that all geological work based upon accurate geological maps, and that observations (such a section descriptions, mineralogical and chemical analyses) cannot be inter- preted without a careful description of the field occurrence within the context of an accurate geological map. 24. Preliminary studies Suppose th produce, from prind ples, a recom 2 Field techniques rocks, mapping of complex cont relationships may necessitate mapping of individual outcrops on a scale of 000 (ca. 6 inches to the mi nally "at larger scales 1: 2500, ca. 25 inches to both cases, the preliminary vis allow the broad distribution of the major rock-types present in an area to be assessed, For all studies it is important to ‘obtain a detailed topographic map, aerial photographs and, where poss- ible, a published geological map. When 4 published geological map of an area is used, a reference should be included in any written and/or published work stating eractly how it was used, Now that published maps may not be per~ fect and you should always evaluate, the extent to which your field obser- vations support or to make a pl area for a few days well before com- ‘mencing a dewailed study that may take | several weeks or months. The nature of the mapping carried out, or the maps inwerpretation might be more appropriate. Available maps and photographs should be studied before foing into the field (and copies should Be taken into the field) as an aid in formulating the field plan; for exam- ple, in saving time crossing. ground 7where there is little chance of finding geological map the topographic map and/or aerial photograph. Where ‘outcrops cannot be identified (or where no map is available), then rmuch time may be required to find suitable exposures, especially in glaciated low- land areas. Obvious places to start looking are sea. cliffs (on coastal seam sections, road and ‘way cuttings and construction sites, pecially for large engineering works 2 dams a Quarries bat the owners should be contacted 1 check that access wil be obtained to examine exposures on private land, ‘After the exposures have been located, a decision should be taken on how many should be examined, and in what degree of detail. Again, this depend upon the aims of the well as upon time, access and we On a reconnaissance survey a smal number of well-paced sections should be studied but, fa specifi rock-type (Guch 2s a voleanic unit or an igneous intrusion) is being mapped, then there is no short-cut and all available out crops should be examined, with more attention being given to outcrops like- Iy to show important details Outerops should first be viewed from a distance to determine any gross structural features which should be assessed to determine whether they telat tothe mode of ocutence of an genous body (cf. Chapter 3). The outcrop should then be studied more 8 including the features of the outcrop and to notes on samples collected Isin Chapters 3 and 4). 22, Equipment ‘The equipment required for a p: cular project depends upon the de ced aims of the work. For almost all projects, a hammer (ca. 1 kg), a note- adequate pens, pencils and compa steel tape/ruler and bandlens are essential. A camera is invaluabl samples are to be coll hammer (ca. 2-3. kg) i thene or cloth carried. For d ping, along spe (€, 20-30 m) the sf groog mis be expe everywhere) with good footwear an appropriate for the ms. Finally, a small aid kit should always be carried. The detailed specification of equipment has been described in Chapter 2), where the 1d a description of the that are commonly. 2 spectacles should be worn when breaking samples from hard rock. For Chapters 3 and large rock samp! seuly "and chemical ana weathered surface should be removed as far as possible; itis useful to carry a smaller chisel-ended geological hammer for this purpose. 2.3. Field notes Although it may take some experience always preferable tot in field notes. ‘There more fru ming from remo field terrain only to dis in some aspects of the field notes, coupled with a hazy memory. Incomplete notes can render worthless all the work done at a location and the effort expended in going to remote exposures. Since most of the results of field work should be recorded in the field, the field notebook and field map pro ‘vide the most important record of field observations and collected. specimens. The field notebook and field map are therefore vital pieces of equipment ‘which should be carefully written and preserved. Always remember to write your name and address in the front of the notebook. Your notebooks are so Whether carryin mapping or sample collection based on a published map, each outcrop should be identified, described and numbered notebook. In poorly ex- posed areas, it is re easy wo and number an individual terrain of continuous exposure areas of outcrop should be iden- ied and located on the map, using methods where necessa collected should also be ‘ated on the map and described in Id notebook (see also Section 2. vations or to extend them in other directions. An example of the descrip- mn and sample collection from an individual outcrop of igneous rock is shown in Fig. 2.1 Field: notes should be factual and descrive exactly, what is being ober ved. They may include interpretations or speculations made (or imagined) in the field but these should be clearly distinguished from direct field obser- ‘ations Ii important to deseribe the Size, shape and orientation (e.g. dip ° |labelled -sketches (or photographs) (@). Theursctany 10 Tone 198! Woes Penmaen; Sinai poly gonad hill ca. 300% 150m, Me fg ee Savanah fition (ak. SHEE) Cp Matengtns Vaarv, 1932, pater) The fill = composer f sle- 65 Intermediate 52-65 Basic 45-52 Uhtrabasic <4 “Approximate ange of iermediate, basic and ultrabasie are in terms of the abund- ance of SiO in igneous rock chemical ey are also ap- id for example, rocks may be as acid, Table 4.2 provides a ready comparison of the’ different terms used in describing the in general, tse those on the right fori Although the implications of colour for an assessment of rock compo: have been described ins clearly there are many oth considered before assigning field 10 igneous rock samples. The fo not jump to hasty conclusions fter noting the colour of the weathered and fresh surfaces, consider next the other features of field speci- mens — their texture and mineral con- "onsible rel colour index’ descriptions. 5-25 25-55 Mesocratic 55-85 Melanocratie or 85-100 a chemical composition, whereas mafic with high colour index and of bas composition4.3. Texture, grain size and fabric 1 relationships between known as texture. When describing the texture ofa field sample, examine: 1. The grain-size of the rock which reflect the rate at which 1 fabric, or geometrical charac- teristics and arrangement of the crystals including, where possi dbrervaions of the number minerals present and the character- istic shapes, or habits oftheir crys tals The overall homogeneity of the specimen (i. whether ie uniform and equigranular, or contains ‘mineral segregations, banding, and irregular inclusions) ‘These features all provide clues to the physical conditions under which the magma crystallized; thus, whereas the colour of a specimen is gene related to its chemical comp (eg. granites are usually. ligh colour than. gabbres), ure reflects its history and mode of occurr- ence (further details in Chapter 5). For example, rapid chilling leads tothe for- mation of a glass, whereas the nucle- ation of crystals at many sites in a ‘magma erupted at the surface and still Table 4.3, Fine-grained™ ‘On the other hand, slow cooling, as in intrusions emplaced below the Grain size is usually the most obvious textural characteristic, after examining the specimen wi aid of a handlens, it should be assigned to one of the categories in Table 43 The terms in Table 4.3 are easily applied to rocks that are more oF less equigranular (equal grain size ‘many specimens are pi 44), having a. popula formed, large phenocrysts in a finer grained groundmass or matrix. In such cases, the actual size of both popula- f crystals should be recorded. hort-hand way of describing porphyritic texture, once the phenocryst mineral has been iden- to use the hyphenated adjec- ‘may prove im- possible ro continue the description of non-porphyritic (or aphyric) speci- ‘mens in this category without recourse to laboratory techniques. Field names such as ‘fine-grained felsic or ‘mafic rock’ are recommended on the basis Few crystal boundaries divtingu the aid of a handlens; mean in size below 1 mm. the term hyaline may be us. Medinm-grained”™* Coarse-grained** boundaries distinguishable wi the aid of a Virtually all crystal boundaries distinguishable with the naked eye: mean grain size greater than 5 mm. "Fine grained and hyaline rocks may be eermed aphanitic **Medium- and coarse-grained rocks may be termed phaneriic in texture. 32 former ate likely ly feldspars whereas th contain mainly mafic minerals Subhedral Anhedral Synonymous terms Tdiomorphic Hypidiomorphic Allotsiomorphic cof amphibol aphanitic sample of grey andesite lava of photograph 9 X 6 em. surface, would show regular, straight- sided cross-sections, often of rectangu- During the n of most igneous rocks ig for the and only the first ls, such as any phenoc- ave good crystal forms. Three sets of terms are used to Synonymous terms Def ‘Automorphic Crystal completely bounded by its characteristic faces Hypautomorphic Crystal bounded by only some of its characteristic faces Xenomorphie Crystal lacks any of its characteristic, faces 3a i describe the quality of development of crystal faces, the most commonly used 3 left-hand column, entire rock. Depending on the general shape of the crystals, three textures ean be distinguished within equigranular rocks, as shown in Table 4.5, ‘The boundaries between the gories defined in Table 4.5 are not sharply defined and consequently the terms are applied very subjectively Farthermore, 2 rock may nti neatly into a single category: thus, one in which ~ 50% of che crys are euhedral and ~ 50% anhedral might best be described as having a mixed cuhedral and anhedral granular After describing the individual erys- tals and their inter-relationships, the remaining textural characteristics 10 ne homogene- ity of the rock. At the scale of a hand Fig. 45. Sketches of (a) cul (cleavage traces at 60° and 120", cf, Table 45) Table 45 Tem proms Euhedral granular Subhedral granular Anhedral granular Panidomorphic granular Hypidiomorphie granular subhedral and (¢) anhedral amphibole crystals Definition Bulk of the crystals are ‘euhedral and of size ! Bulk of the ery qf subhedral and of Bulk of the anhedral and of uniform specimen, moet igneous rocks are aig’ iaigeaeea bert Gecaaiceas flow banding or mineral le are encountered (Section 3.3), Banding in medium and co nation, expressed as and darker laye ) oF, perhaps, through high-grade metamorphism of otherwise homogeneous igneous material (see Chapter 12 for det Subsequent as a whole, Fine-grained lavas often contain minerals — amyg are discussed in Chapter 6 (Fig. 6.3) The textures which have been intro recognize the textural features ofa p ticular hand specimen, remembe the golden rule is to make accurate observations backed up by field sketches as appropriate. More examples ‘of these and other less frequently observed textures atthe sale of hand in this field specimens appear suide. 44° Mineral identification art of a fi of igneout rocks of the & Igneous rocks cor ‘major minerals, together ‘minerals that are much le Major and minor miners are necessary to the naming of the rock. They are usually major minerals, for example, quartz in a gra those which are present in such small amounts that they are disregarded in the definition of the rock; for example, to name the accessory problem is most acute for fine-grained ‘mafic rocks in which many of the mafic minerals have a similar appear- ance. Even in coarse-grained leucocra- difficult to distinguish ferent minerals, particu- ly between plagioclase and alkali ldspar. However, a8 you gain in ex~ rience of the properties of minerals 35es that commonly occur more confident naming of rocks will bec worth remembering that mi rocks represent an. asset minerals that crystallized chemical equilibri from 2 ma mafic minerals. biotite and quent! ‘occur together but other combinations, Sch ae Svie and ioe re much less common. The kinds of combina- tions that occur most freque igneous rocks are summarized i mineral-rock classification diagrams con the following pages; note, in par ticular, Fig. 4.7. For feld purpo seldom necessary to spend identifying more than one or two of the ‘main minerals in rock specimen: can be achieved with much greater suc~ cess with the microscope. In the course of observing colour and texture of have formed an. impr approximate number and some ich summarizes mineral properti under five major headings: light-coloured felsic mineral, as these are often most casily identified. A few poines about the use of Table 4.6: is an obvious property of ike that of cate minerals ‘ments, particularly iron, are dark- coloured. 36 in their atomic surfaces ae fla evenly and are posite of many flat cleavage surfaces intersecting at or near 90° (Fig. 4.6). ‘The perfect single cleavage of mica, which forms the bright surfaces, often allows lodged with a penknife or finger nail. In contrast, cleavage in pyroxenes and amphiboles is seen only occa sionally as fine grains, wher sections of euhedral cry rroxenes and amphi- le 4:6) are much more mineral surfaces, ravage surfaces, are caugl through resinous and silky ;, which may be metallic, glassy or vitreous (which literally also particularly any by the means glassy but here is defined slightly differently) depending on the mineral concerned. A brightly col- ured lcate mineral which is opaque of light may have a » Tike glazed pottery, uch as clean crystals of amphibole and pyroxene. On the other hand, a similar translucent (weakly transpa~ wnsparent_ mineral may appear glassy (eg. quartz and fresh oli- Habit refers to the characteris- hand. specimen (sce Table ing is best observed by crystal faces in to one particular planar cross-section). hhave quite well-defined shapes in most euhedral ns, e.g. lath-shaped feld- spars which are long and thin, but ree~ tangular, dodecahedral or ‘trapezo- hedral ‘garnets, and acicular (ie. needle-like) tourmalines. Others, such as quar and olivine, are less ‘com- monly euhedral. Twinning resul from crystal growth in different bonding within a ery using a simple but no: increasing hardness from 1 to 10 known as Mobs’ scale. If the mineral grains are large and fresh enough (weathered grains are often softer than the original) then a series of scratching tests using a finger nail (hardness ca a copper coin (hardness ca. 3.5) and a ‘steel penknife blade or geological hammer (hardness ca. 5.5) may prove diagnostic. For example, mica or cal- 7Table 4.6 Mineral properties in igneous rock hand specimens Mineral Typical chemical formals Colour Cleavage Frardness Felic minerals Quine SO; (K.NAAIS,O, Plagioclse feldspar NaAISi,O, to CaALSi0y Nepheline NaAlSiO, Muscovite (esis) KAIAISi,O (OH), Matic minerals, Olivine (Mg.FesSiO. Pyroxene (i) (Mg.FesCa),Si,O, (augite, ec) (i) NaFeSi,0, (aegirine) () CaM g.Fe)sSiOr, (OH) (eg, tremolite) Gi) NasFey Pep "Si, Ox(OH (riebeckite) K(Mg Fe) (AIO) (On; nphibole Biotite (ica) Tourmaline Na(Mg.Fe)sALB:SisOs> (OH). Frequent accessory minerals Apatite C(PO)(OH) Sphene —_CATISIOYOH), Colourless to pale None: irregular, rey when sur- or curved rounded by dark fracture minerals; tans surfaces parent Glassy, shiny White or pink, sometimes orange or yellow 2 sets at 90 poorly visible Usually dal, sometimes silky White or green, rarely pink or ‘lack 2 sets almost 2390, poorly visible Usually dul, sometimes silky White to pale grey 2 poor cleavages, Greasy, occasionally itreous disince Colourless to pale brown or een 1 excellent cleavage, cleaves nto thin flexible sheets Shiny, sibver and pearly Olive green, yellow-green, Sometimes brown Very poor, usualy fractures viteeous when sered Black to dark ircen or brown Yellowish-green Vitreous when fresh, dull when akered 2 good sets meeting a ary Vitreous when fresh, dull when altered black or dark green Dark blue meeting at 56/128" Black to brownish | ood sets Black to dark brown oF green 1 excellent Very shiny cleavage; cleaves into thin flexible sheets Black, but varieties Very poor Vitreous shiny may be blue, red fr green Pale green to Very poor yellow green Colourless to yellow, green or brown 1 good Vitreous cleavage Glassy when fresh, Rare trigonal pyramids but ee anhedral Tabular crystals; shiny cleavage surfaces may show simple twin Elongate rectangular ‘a lamellae, or regular masses of plagioclase may be noted, in which eas the crystals termed a perthite Lath-shaped crystals; shiny cleavage surfaces may show muliple, parallel twins Usually occu in micro crystalline groundmass foceasional aggregates of crystals Tabular crystals sometimes (sided, especially in pegmatices Usually rounded anhedral crystals, occasionally quidimensiona tabular forms 7 tor Sided pina Sout cea ening aac oe ‘Acgirine more acicular 8 Prismatic orlozenge-shaped 5-6 crysis chen showing cleavage ES or Rcbeskite more aiul Thin tabular crystals occasionally 6: tspeily in ignimbrite and ad vs Long hin prismatic nedle- 7 shaped cry sometimes longi srined and fie in luster cxeasonally sted curved traces Often caked, sub hexagonal ery commonly rounded Characteristic, <> cuhedalshombic yaTable 4.6 Mineral properties in igneous rock hand specimens (continued) ‘Minera Typial chemical Colour Clearage Tare Taber Flardness formula Frequent Accessory Minerals (contd.) Garnet (MgFOALSO,, Red, brown or Poor Usually Equidimensiona crystals (ao C3, Mn) yellow resinous or dull, often showing faces typical good crystals" of eubic system, eg. may be glassy dodecahedra and trapezo: hedea. Common in meta- iranites, Leute KAISiO, White or grey None Vitreous of Often euhedral 556 resinous trapezohedral crystals in alkaline lavas Hematite FesOs Red to red-browa, None Dull Usually fine and powdery, 55-6 sometimes black ‘occasionally sealy or fibrous crystals Magnetite, FeO, Black, brownish Poor Metalic, dull Small equidimensional 58 (spine! black sranular crystals, occasional mineral) cubes or octahedra (Other spinels are M?*M}*O, where M?* is Fe, Mg, Mn, Zn, etc. and Mis Al, Fe, Cr, ete eg datk brown to black chromite, FeCriOy. hich occurs in some peridotits) IImenite FTI, Monazite (CesLa;TW)PO, Secondary minerals (Se also Table 8.2) Cake” CaCO, Zeolite Black, brownish None black or grey Pale yellow to Moderate dark brown single cleavage White, translucent Metalic oF dull Resinous Vitecous, rarely glassy “Thin plates or sales 56 usually elongate crystals, sometimes rod-like Thick tabular crystals in 5-85 seanites and gaeises Usually granular or fibrous 3 Jin igneous rocks, common NB Reacts with dilute acid eg. (NaCa) (ALSi0,.). White, pale yellow Variable Usually vitreous Massive or granular crystals 5-6 Frou, ‘nH,O (n varies from 2 or pale green, according oor silky lining cavities, particulaty 8) rarely pink, red or mineral type amygdales; radiating blue fibrous clusters or needles Clay group eg. ALSOj(OH), White to pale Good, but not Dull, Fine powdery aggregates 1 (solinite) browns and greens visible in hand seplacing mainly feldspar specimens im igneous rocks Epidote CaFe*AL,SiO,(OH) Pale yellows and 1 good Vitreous Variable, often elongated 6-7 apple green, rately cleavage crystals, needles and brown or red radiating groups, coarsely crystalline varieties in hydrothermal veins and vesicles Chlorite —(Mg,ALFeN(SiADsO Mid-geeen tot good cleavage Dull to pearly Usually aggregates of fine 2-3 (OH) dark greenish- gives thin sheets and ‘micaceous’ crystals, sometimes thin yellow tabular flakes replacing mafic minerals in igneous rocks Pyrite Fs, Brassy yellow, Poor Metallic ‘Often good cubic crystal 6-65 occasionally brown ridescent faces, occasionally striated, or black nish Granular aggregates, particularly along veins in igneous rocksTal 8 com fii, jar mation for good examples of the ton most common minerals that ocar i Cab pemed proms rocks 10 be donald. Also included are cight of the more abundant acessory minerals | whose individval abundances. rarely Zrcced 10% by volume of 2 rock. Whereas apatite, sphene, gamet and eucite sometimes form easly iden tuhedralerystals, the three opaque nium oxide’ minerals, which the imerstces between major often Silicate minerals, have similar appear- ances in hand specimens. The list of Secondary (ie. post-magmatic) miner- als includes (a) those found as amyg- dale minerals in lavas (eg. calcite, zedlite); (b) those found in hydrother~ tal veins cutting igneous rock out crops (e. calcite, chlorite, but also {quartz}, and (6) those which replace primey ates in roks that ave cen subject to pervasive hydrother mal or metasomatic alteration and weathering reactions at submagmatic temperatures (eg clay minerals and/or epider replacing feldsars and mis lorie replacing mafie minerals. 4.5 Naming field specimens When describing « medium- or coarse- ‘grained field specimen you should esti- imate, as a percentage, the volume of the rock occupied by each identified ‘mineral and, for those you are unable to identify, make a brief note of their properties for later reference. Observa- tions of colour, texture and mineral content can now be combined into a field name for the rock specimen ‘using initially, Fig. 4.7. Earlier, it was noted thatthe natural chemical range ‘of most igneous rocks from 40 to 75% SiO, is accompanied by a progressive a increase in their content of felsic minerals and a corresponding decrease in their mafic constituents. This infor- mation appears on the front face of Fig. 4.7 with the acid, silica-rich rocks ‘on the left and the ultrabasie rocks on ‘Although this scheme for prelimin- ary rock identification works well in the field for medium- and coarse: grained rocks, follow more closely the precise defi tions of the TUGS.Subcommiss (Appendix 1). This scheme classifies a rocks with a content of mafic minerals (plus Fe-Ti oxides, carbonates of igneous origin and accessory minerals) less than 90%, primarily using the relative proportions of their different felsic minerals: Q = quartz, A = alk feldspars, P = plagioclase feldspars, F = feldspathoid minerals, (eg nepheline and leucite in Table 4.6, though there are other feldspathoids; these minerals have similar chemistry to feldspars but with less SiO, and are ‘often collectively known by the abbreviation foid minerals). Figure 4.8 is a simplified version of the QAPF diagram which, with experience, can bbe used in the field quite success ‘especially in conjunction with Figs 4.9 wo. Consider first those rocks where quarta is typically 20-60% of the felsic minerals: these can be named acct ately as alkali granite, granite, grano- dionte or tonalite, if the relative prop- ortions of alkali feldspar and plagioe- lase are estimated (cf. Fig 4.9). Where this is not possible, any sample with 20-60% quartz may, provisionally, be termed ‘granitoid’. Figure 49 il trates the usual range of mafic minerals present in granitoid rocks and the areas in which the prefixes leuco- and mela- would normally be applied. the feldspars of rocks with lesser + amounts of quartz, or no quartz and ‘small amounts of feldspathoid minerals ‘may allow a distinction to be made Between all syn, ene and an | abundant group of plagioclase-ric | rocks — the diorites, gabbros, and a less common group discussed later, the anorthosites (compare Figs 4.8 ‘and 4.10). Strictly, the distinction between diorite and gabbro lies in the compo- sition of the plagioclase feldspar which must contain more than 50% of the albite (NaAlSi,O,) molecule in diorite and more than 50% of the anorthite (CaALSi,0,) molecule in gabbro. As the compositions of _ plagioclase feldspars cannot be determined in the field, the use of a secondary character- istic is recommended — the nature of the common mafic mineral (Fig. 4.7) — to make a preliminary distinction between. diorite (with biotite and amphibole) and gabbro (usual pyroxene) It is emphasized once more that, wherever possible, these pro- visional field names should be re- examined in the light of subsequent microscope studies using a more detailed version of the QAPF diagram (Fig. 4.8 and Appendix 1). } Thyolite 6 ee wt a ERE ATE gg We’ } Fanite granodiorite_diorite gabbro peridotite SY usr, vl biotite ‘mineral content (vol. % es using colour index (front face at occur 3¢ different sil and grain size (decreasing igneous dark efoid-rich rocks Fig, 48 Simplified QAPF diagram for naming medium- and coarse grained field using thee salie mineral content (se text and Appendix I for furthe igneous rocks fallin the shaded area. Remember that sputhoid. ine, orthopyroxene and clino- 96% or more of mafic minerals). “ 45Among the rock-types introduced s0 far are two major acid-intermediate- basic geochemical series, or associa tions, the occurrence of which tends to bbe mutually exclusive (hence the sepa- alkali_syenite-syenite- ratios, such as CaO/(Na,0+K, (Cox, Bell and Pankhurst, 1979), as will be clear from Figs. 4.8—4, the geochemical differences are refle cd in the nature of the feldspars and, less obviously, in the mafic miner content. Rocks of the alkaline series have relatively low abundances of mafic minerals (eg. alkali syenite and in Fig. 4.10) and, instead, their a (basic) end-members extend dant mineral. In contrast to the dark- browns and black colours of pyroxenes and amphiboles in diorites and gabbros, the smaller amounts of mafic Minerals of ala rocks are often listinctive, consisting of spectacular green or dark-blue alkali pyroxenes and amphiboles (e.g. aegirine and ri beckite — compare formulae wi common pyroxenes and amphibole granite, for exam is often the presence of dark-bl amphibole needles in the former and of black prismatic amphiboles and/or 6 micas inthe latter (see also Chapters 8 and9), Tn the low silica, ultrabasie rocks, there are two important groups to con” sider (cf. Fig. 4.10) ) a leucocratic group, the anortho- (i) a melanocratic group, the perido- tites and pyroxenites. pale-brown or rocks wed dewails in Chapters 9 and trast with anorthosites, rocks that are virtually devoid of feldspar but have abundant mafic minerals (> 90%), and range from dark-green or brown to black in colour, are known collectively as ultramafic. These are subdivided further, according to their particular (60% pyroxene), ine) and several other minor categories that are not iy recognized in the field (Fig fon the separate ide orthopyroxene and which is sometimes diffi specimens. Orthopyroxenes are gen- erally of paler brown or green colours than clinopyroxenes and sometimes weather to. a red-brown colour whereas, with a few rare exceptions, clinopyroxenes are very dark brown, green or black. Green orthopyroxene is distinguished from olivine using crystal shape and cleavage (Table 4. However icularly distinc nopyroxene in some mafic rocks minerals. However, a rather rare group neous rocks, known as carbona~ iin more than 50% (by sarbonate minerals and ‘occur as lavas and intru sive dykes and plugs. These are subdi- vided further using the major carbon. ate mineral present into calcite (CsCO,)-carbonatites, known as sovites; dolomite | (CaMg(Ct carbonatites, known as befor which tend to be cream or pale. yellow; and ferrocarbonatites where yellow-brown siderite (FeCO,) is the ‘main mineral. Although these igneous rocks are rare, they are associated rocks, Finer grained examy the requisite minerals can be identified in hand specimen should be given the Same nancs with the prior adjectives (Table 43, but see aso Table 48) ‘medium-grained or fine-grained (a. fine grained However, in the special case frsined mafic the terms dole (or diabase in the USA) stein common use and ar equally Acceptable as fine. or medium rained boro ‘Although most mediam-grained rocks can be matched in mineral com Boston withthe common rock-types described above, there is one group that occurs in minor intrusions which bas disinctve mineralogy and texture: the lamprophyres. These are medium- grained mesocratic or melanocratic phyritic ts of biotite and/ in @-groundmass con- ldspars and/or feldspathoid They may contain hy thermal calcite and zeolites, and the igneous minerals are fre- extensive minerals. They are further due to the rocks in this catego together with their colour, often pro- vides enough information for them to be named in the field; itis customary to use their phenocryst minerals as descriptive adjectives (see Table 4.8). Not all the phenocryst minerals listed in Table 4.8 need occur in each of the respective rock-types: indeed, most porphyritic rocks are named on the for aphyric rms fine-grained fel- ‘The nomenclature of voleanic rocks discussed in more detail in Chapter 6. Finally, Table 4.9 provides a checklist for easy reference when describing and ‘naming igneous rocks in the field; Fig. 4.12 gives an example of such descrip- tion in conjunction ‘with observations of the outcrop from which the sample twas taken (the technique used is described in Chapter 3 and summa rized in Table 3.1)intrusive bodies (ef, Chapter 5) are often concentrated in number towards their source ax the margins and so may be use as they may be 3 inruvon wall sof igneous origin: these range from the olivine. and peridotite xenoliths, often called ‘nodules’, that are common in voleanic rocks (Fig. 413c) to fragments of pre- existing igneous bodies or of early- crystallized igneous material that became incorporated into the residual magma from the walls of a magma chamber (Fig. 4.134). All igneous- textured xenoliths derived from a source in common with their host Country rock xenoliths engulfed by magma may be referred to as cognate rusive magmas often show evidence xenoliths; the term —autolith is appropriate for igneous xenoliths hich represent arler-erysalized al from the same magma 3d). Generaly, however, these terms have genetic implications and should be used with caution until a full petrological and _petrogenetic 4.6 Inclusions in field specimens inclusions of foreign mineral which have elongate form and which wall rock se those with igneous )) Xenoliths in the nated a8 fragment rock that were either eng “upward-moving magma o1 imagma chamber before became complete. Uni rock. fabrics, such asthe inclusion — in the form of changes in the mineralogy of the host within a few cen of the xenoliths — sugges 1 melting has occurred. hs have been exten- tic syenite in. granodiorite Quatre Tours granite, French Finally, as a general guide, the colour, texture, minelogy and mar, ins of any xenoliths encountere ai ene fom their host rocks. Further study of Xeno lich, such as measuring their orien 52 ‘Table 4.9 Checklist for describing igneous rock hand specim be used in conjunction with Table 3.1 (p.25) for outcrop descr T Tramine weathered surface of rock outcrop, noting & sometimes weathered surfaces provide a clue to the re ‘minerals and to their composition (e.g. the red-brown weathering residues of corthopyroxenes and olivines) fresh ‘as much From the outeroy surfaces. When ‘weathered material 35 po load for carrying. collect and number represen nical ein the field to save effort rk, Record colour of the fresh su imate the colour index. e and, where possible, Examine the grains under a handlens: aphyric, note any other textural features and record composition (see Table 4.2) Record coarse, medium or fine grain size of the rock (see Table 4.3) and textural relationship between minerals (Tables 4.4 and 4.5) If the rock is porphyritic, record grain size and textural relationship of phenocrysts to groundmass. the presence of layering, lamination, flow such a8 the pres- Estimate the number and proportions of the different minerals present and, ach, record where possible: colour, cleavage, lustre, habit, hardness. Use Table 4.6 for identification purposes. 1¢ your observations to give the specimen a field name, using Fig medium and coarse-grained rocks and Table 4.8 for porphyrie fine-grained rocks "See Fig. 4.12 (p49) for an example ofa field description following this scheme. 335.1 Volcanic rock units Volcanic rocks are classified as lavas and pyroclastic rocks. La fragmented by explosive volcanic activity. Pyroe: lastic rocks result from two types of deposit. Air-fall dep back through the ai around the volcano. Pyro result from transport of solid frag- ments of volcanic rock in a fluid (gas or liquid) matrix away from the vol- cano. Like lavas, such deposits are concentrated in valleys and depress- ions around the volcano. The ‘most extensive pyroclastic deposits may form large-scale ‘Although lava flows are often regarded as the dominant product of volcanoes, all volcanoes erupt both lava and solid. pyro Whereas basaltic volcanoes such Hawaii erupt dominantly ( lava, the dominantly and duets of many voleanoes in and active continental margins have less than 10% lava and over 90% pyroclastic rocks. Further, the erupted 54 5 Mode of occurrence of igneous ight be over-represented in land are and continental mar- gin volcanoes. Voleanoes show a wide variety of depending largely upon tion of the erupted rocks might belong. The most exten- sive volcanic areas comprise flat or gently-dipping basalt lava ‘These may have are and, since they occur wi talareas, they may be preserved the geological record. Basaltic noes are composed dominantly of lava and have abroad. shield-like form, termed a shield volcano, which may have a diameter up to 100-200 km. These Many volcanoes, part andesite composition are compos 5.1). Although the lavas are generally restricted to the area of volcanic forms result from a single short-lived eruption and of cones and extru= larger volcanic yrhen they my be termed pare a variety of deposits. These contemporaneous and, for a osed as volcanic plugsy dykes and sills) associated with coarse, poorlysored pyr ave been deposi ‘The proximal zone (ea. 5-15 km. flow depo Zone (yond a 3-1 kn om the irl ven and extending beyon canes characterzed by pyrodas- 55within any of the three zones, There- tic flow deposits associated with fine low topography, and hence contacts airfall deposits dispersed by wind between lava and older rock will be away from the voleano, These may be complex; in many cases, when traced interbedded with sedimentary rocks laterally, the contact will be against a such as lacustrine deposits. Pyroclastic surface with considerable relief and cones, flows and domes may occur will not represent a simple stratig- raphic junction traceable over large distances. A further complication arises when lavas are erupted into val- in 2 topography cut through Tava in which case Iva flows of exposed ata simi- ren for young volcanos cult to correlate pyroclastic fal flows, deposits with a ‘The form of voleanic rock units is ined by study of the contacts. Where the lower contact is against an older lava flow, there may irregular mixture of rubbly. material derived from ing flow and platean lavas 0 Sedimentary rocks such ee) central zone subvoleanie intrusion Fig. 5.2. Schematic section showing the f large composite volcano. The char are described in the text. ic rocks erupted from a proximal and distal zones 56 deposits may be interbedded between the lava flows. Because of the large wral extent of plateau lavas, these regional. strat ‘where the yws are nearly horizontal, the contacts will be close to topog- raphic contours. However, in many apping shows that the vas vary by more than in the is apparen needed to trace and measure individual plateau lava flows around the top. ography, former position of valley into Which flow 1 was erupted Fig. 5.3. Effect of differential erosion on rupted lava flows. Successive eruption of lava flows 1, 2 and 3 down 2 drainage channel has alternated with erosion along the margins of the lava flow. The broken lines indicate the former positions of the Arainage channels. Following eruption of the earliest flow apparent stratigraphic order that differs from the true order of eruption. Inthe lower Section on the left che apparent order (from the base) is 2-1-3, Contacts between pyroclastic units may resembie those described for lavas above, The contacts of small-volume pytociastic flows are again controlled by topography but large-volume plastic flows, parciularly ignim- see Chapter 6), may be traced as stratigraphic units over large areas (Fig. 5.5). Their sharp upper and lower contacts may be taced and. mapped ar procedures to those ap- to sedimentary rocks. Finally, remember that many pyroclastic rocks are redeposited by water (or wind) after formation. Hence, depos changes to sedimentary rocks and may bbe mapped using the same procedures (see Tucker, 1982, Chapter 2) 5.2 Intrusive rock units 5.2.1 Minor intrusions Intrusions vary widely in size and relationship to the country rock and are generally grouped according to size imo () minor inerusions which have mean minimum dimensions measured in tens of metres (or less) and were emplaced relatively near to Earth's surface, and plutonic intrusions which are commonly emplaced at greater depth and have sizes measured in terms of kilometers. ‘The most common forms of minor intrusions are shown schematically in approximately vertical at the time of emplacement and are hence discordant to host rocks such as shallow-dipping sedimentary rocks. As a consequence 37‘55. Ignimbrite plateau in north Chile. The igaimbs Fg. teeta igses hundreds of km in size, which are clearly distinct from smaller minor intrusions. Concordant intrusions may be mapped as stratigraphic units, but such intrusions may show rapid changes in thickness, and transgression from one unit to another (Fig. 5.6 and 7.4). Both dykes and sills may extend over areas measured in thousands of km? and sometimes show evidence of a relationship with surface voleanism. Although most dykes are broadl inear features, some are related to cen- tral igneous complexes characterized by sheet-like intrusions that may be circular in outcrop plan. ‘These are termed ring intrusions and are classi- fied into two types according to the attitude of the contacts (Fig. 5.7). Ring-dykes have vertical and outward dipping contacts which are usually taken to indicate e sidence of the central cylindrical Fig. 5.7a) in a tensional stress field. kes may have thicknesses of, up to 1-2 km but are more commonly in the order of several hundred metres. ‘They may occur singly or in multiple units, and the overall ring complex may be 5-10 km in overall diameter. Coneshens occur as singe sma intrusions, with outerops separated by curved sheets termed. ‘screens’ of country rock. By contrast to ring- dykes, the form of cone-sheets must indicate emplacement by uplift of the eeleeiiecwl ch aices uplift of the roof of the chamber dur- ing intrusion. Ring-dykes are much more abundant than cone-sheets, but the latter are especially common in the Scottish Tertiary. voleanic province. Because the mechanism of emplace- ment of ring-dykes involves. subsi dence of a central block (Fig. 5.73), such ring intrusions are sometimes associated with relatively flat-lying 60 tabular minor intrusions emplaced over the block (Fig. 5.8). These include high-level granites, which are described in Section 7.3. Note that such sheet-like high-level intrusions are distinct in form from steep-sided plutonic intrusions. Fig. 5.7 Block diagram of (2) single ring- dyke and (b) a set of cone-sheets, idealized 1 show the features of shape, outcrop and relationship to horizontally — bedded country rock In. studying minor intrusions care should be taken to trace contacts and measure stratigraphic sections, Most contacts are complex: minor intrusions and plutons usually show steep con- tacts and, since the form and areal distribution of such contacts are used. to determine the form of the intrusion in three dimensions, it is particularly important to determine the attitude and orientation of all planar contacts in order to determine the overall geometry. For many minor intrusions it should be possi 5.2.2. Plutonic intrusions Coarse-grained plutonic rocks occur most frequently within large, elongate Belts of intrusions 50-150 km in wth and 500-1500 km in length, that characterize eroded 1 belts. Such clongate plutonic bodies are termed batholiths. They are usually composed of a large number of cross cutting smaller intrusions, including bodies 5-50 km in size with circular ‘outcrop — literally plutons — and ring intrusions; the latter have steeply dipping contacts. Circular intrusions 100 km* stocks. The fea- jons in an eroded 5.9. This batholich are sho shows that the major contacts are out- ward dipping but that where the intru- sion has an irregular roof, exposure might leave irregular downward pro- jections of roof country rocks sur- rounded by igneous rock. These are termed roof pendants and can be iden- surface may be determined from of contacts, additional clues come from the extent of the metamorphic There are that orientation and attitude of a contact lutonic rock and country see also Sections 3.2, 3.3). These de the characteristics of fine- nes, which are ana led margin of a minor n. Where a flow structure is cous rock, whether as flow lines, preferred orientation of phenocrysts or mineral fabric, this might be taken as being parallel to a contact and hence may be used to infer its attitude. However, this method should be applied with caution since many mineral fabrics within intrusive rocks do not relate to contacts Plutonic rocks often have sets of joints at steep angles to the contact and parallel with the contact (Fig. 5.10) and, where these can be distinguished, then the jointing pattern may also pro- vide a clue to contact. orientation. fence may be obtained from tudes of inclusions and xeno= Fig. 413). Where these show referential orientation which might let flow parallel to contacts, they so be used to determine the ati~ contact (cf. Section 46). These features of intrusive rocks should all be considered when attempting t0 deter- 6rine the position and attitude of con- 8,5. The contact metamorphic zone susceptible to thermal metamorphism 5.2.3 General features of intrusive beeween platonic rocks and their around a itu ) than sandstones. Where an intrusion is rocks a v of few centimet Hence, special attention should be give jagged or may be interpreted as indicat ion of magma usually of several hundred met textures and metamorphic minerals that occur within aureoles are summarized in Se zone will be most extensive in stones and shales, which are root pendantemf an neous conta country rock ter has been smctamorphosed Jn a wider zone fom the left where the bedding is transverse the contac. brittle country rock that was coole than the magma. For tabular bodies (Fig. 5.124) the two contacts may have ‘matching form, but often xenoliths are broken from the wall and surrounded by magma. More sinuous or lobate contacts indicate some plastic defor- mation of the country rocks during intrusion and hence imply that the country rock was warmer (possibly due to intrusion at a greater depth) than in the case of straight or jagged contacts In some cases, contacts bet- ‘ween intrusive rocks are diffuse (Fig. 5.124) and this indicates that there was ‘no chilling of one intrusion against another; both must have been at a similar relatively high temperature at the time of emplacement. o ‘The determination of the age rela~ tionships of ig rcks may be by basaltic against ‘id magma. Never theless, in spi the evidence of igneous contacts gener ally provides the clearest jon of relative age age relat morphism, presence the relationship regional fault Where the country lar structures, this ne rocks predate Fig. 5.12 Types of igncous contact, a sen blank raight in (2, jagged in blocky and matched in (4), ) () shows 2 diffe ipple) These contact relationships may be ‘observed on sales ranging from centimetres toa few metre. 6Section 5.1 described the form and geological relationship of vol rock units; here we describe the characteristics of volcanic rocks. 6.1 Lava flows The most obvious features of lava flows are their form and surface morphology. The most extensive lava flows are basalts erupted from fissures, and such sheet-like flows with areas measured in terms of tens of km? form extensive lava plateaux (Fig. 5.4). However, lava flows erupted ovr irregular topography, or from the Summit or fas of x shield or con site voleano, are tongue-like in sha often filling depressions in the rel around the volcano (Fig, 5.1). On Hawaii, a typical basalt’ lava flow might be 10-20 km long, 200 m in width and 3 m in thickness, but there is great variation in such values because lavas vary in viscosity and rate of effu sion. More siliceous flows have a greater viscosity and therefore tend to be relatively shorter and thicker; for example, andesitic lavas rarely flow ‘more than 10-30 km from the voleano and many have thicknesses of up to 30 im. Few dacite or rhyolite flows travel more than a few km from the vent; these may reach thicknesses of up 0 several hundred metres. Extrusions of dacite or rhyolite lava that are circular in plan and have a height : diameter (b/d) ratio of 0.5-0.3 are termed domes Gig. 6.1). Domes commonly have 66 6 Volcanic rocks Ihcights of 50-150 m and diameters of 130-500 m. Lavas may be glassy, microcrys ¢ or fine-grained aphyric or 48). The may be deseribed using explained Chapter 4 but pi may be encountered as a res size. Thus, dark: ed lavas m: hand specimen. Completely aphynic lavas are rare and most lavas tain 10-50% phenocrysts, gener- range of minerals. An made, a y field name based upon phenocrysts; for example, olivine-, plagioclase-phyricrhyol mary of common phenocryst assem- blages in lavas ranging from basalt to thyolite in composition is shown in ‘Table 6.1. In combin ith fear tures such as colour, field relationships and mode of occurrence, this Table is a useful guide to naming porphyritic rocks in the field. For example, olivine is most common in basalt and basaltic andesite lavas; abundant feldspar (plagioclase) with hornblende is characteristic of andesite; and quartz and feldspar (alkali feldspar) are diagnostic of rhyolite. However shyolites are more commonly aphyric than lavas of basic and intermediate composition as above cn bs re approach taken above can be applied only to volcanic rocks that are ion of major phenocryst phases in porphy: jc lavas Andesite Dacite—-Rhyolite « Table 6.1. Compos Basalac Basalt andesite feldspar 7 _ Quare = = Fe-Tioxide “ Soften prevent frequently present or coarse-grained for the individual mineral grains, or at least the phenocrysts, 10 be seen and identified using either the naked eye or ahandlens. More rapidly cooled rocks are fine-grained, sy, im which case they but can have ad- ditional distinctive features. Basic rocks composed of natural glass are termed tachylite and these form on the skin of lava flows or along, the marginal zones of basic sills or dykes. Voleanic glass of intermediate and acid composite is termed obsidian ‘or pitchstone. Obsidian is a black or dark-coloured glass, with a bright flasy lustre and well-developed con- choidal fracture. Pitchstone has a dul, resinous or pitchy lustre, rather than the glassy lustre of obsidian. (This reflects the high content of water Pitchstone in comparison with obsi dian.) Fragments of both types may ‘occur as pyroclastic materials, or form ‘minor intrusions or lava flows. Glassy volcanic rocks of intermediate and Particularly acid composition com monly show flow banding (cf. Fig 3.11) asa result of the drawing out of Tardy prevent absent rrr) lasses are unstable and start to hydrate and to crystallize or devitrfy soon after formation. ‘This process takes place progress that, in general, there are hardly any uunhydrated natur ca, 20 Ma, and, although glasses of Palaeozoic age are known, such glasses rarely exceed 109 Ma in age. However, many ancient volcanic rocks must have originated as natura banded rh Fig. 3.1) Crystallization occurs by spontaneous growth of tiny crystals or erpstallites, commonly of quartz and feldspar. Usually, the individual crystals are not Visible in hand specimens but devitrifi- cation crystals, in_ radiating clusters forming small circular structures resembling cod roe or oolites (termed spherulites), may be scattered through- gut the devifed rock, ‘Complete devitefication yields an aphyrie micro- crystalline rock, which may be light- coloured lava, (Such rocks may be termed felste, but the term is also ap- ied to any. light-coloured fine- grained rock composed chiefly of quartz and feldspar.) 7ig. 62 and 65). Ps 6.28) have smoot Hawaii, US.A. Length of ooparallel Larger 62¢ Blocky lava, San Pedro might occur as a result of deformation accompanying 7 sheets of leveloped than in 1 1s described above. flow showing a party filled lava rmypglales near to the Base.example, lavas contain no sharp contact betw the next. Such extrusions have been in (b) the dowed lines and (b) she black led wich acolonnade tower Fig.6.11_ Diageammat (broken lines). The arow ‘may be 5-20. | 6.2. Pyroclastic rocks rocks are composed ygmented by explosive y. Three types of fragment uunvesiculated material to fragments of highly vesiculaced lava (b) Individual orystals, yielded by deposit ‘but often comprising ‘older lavas, 6.2.1 Problems in the study of pyroc- rocks Although pyroclast abund: rtined lavas and tuffs may be i od Lava may be in a submarine environ- G often showing greater grain-size vari ation between top and bottom due to ling of fine ash through 1d may show reverse grading of pumice due to temporary flotation, before seling of larger fragment: ing. Such reworking f water sedimentary structures, 6.22 Classification of pyroclastic depos young volcanic depos would include mapping varia processes, it may be such an approach, in logical materials of ys components of shown in Fig. 6. cal air-fall ash are 7lated pumice 1000 ke m~"), through less w iculated juvenile fragments, sometimes termed ‘expanded andesite or dacite’ (density ca. 1000-2000 kg ments of - position. The term glass sherd is ap- Plied to ash-sized fragments. (Table 6.2) resulting from the fragmentation 78 ‘of pumice or scoria walls, so tending to shapes (Fig -E). (Fig.6.12F) are components of a bedding ‘The deposits are general show normal grading of pumice and (Fig. 5.1). They are poorly-sorted (but lithic fragments,andmay show internal may show coar grain size or composi- negatively skewed grai mn, due to variation in the force and tion resulting from selective removal of fine-grained mater “tail of ‘coarser material in hi generally lack interna Table6.2 Grain size Grin size" blocks and bombs* fine fine a grain 1mm scale tothe phi scale N=2-, where = For example, conser a grain size of 2mm =r Therefore So, fora grain size of 2 mm, = ~deposits (which are, y much "beter sorted) or with other sedimentary rocks. The texture of py may become modi mn. This is most marked in umiceous pyroclastic flows which are formed igernbrites, The major procers is welding, which is the ing of h fragments (including pu shards during comp: fragments (fiamme) define a planar foliation termed eu 18 of glassy co termed sillar. During welding, fragments res the hor, plastic glassy material may be deformed around them, topography, but are more con centrated and depres tration pyroclastic flows and. low- concent a surges, with consequent gradation between geologi described above) and lo flows. Below 100°C, deposits frequently consist of large vol- matrix which is commonly coarser than mud-grade and is ash-grade material (Table 6.2). for such water-deposited poor! deposits of volcanic materials. Bes volcanoes. These are especial mon where deposits form in water conditions subject to voleanic subsequently buried the cone (8) com layer of ash, showing bedded pyroclastic deposit. 812.0. Flow ed by ash- S sepreseats te gph ‘om and 2 mesture of : oe ay welded py {ferontate,berween deposits onthe bass oftheir degre sorting ‘ig. 6.18). This demon: Constituent fragments The in_ pyroclastic 8 ‘esieles in pumiceous material and pore spaces in scoriaceous material, However, she major compo- nents such as ified pumice fragments shards may be distinguished in present) should be examined tions in degree. The features in Fig. 6.15 may be ized in older ignimbrites on the ‘of arock face, at the medium deposits but can also occur in deposits. 625 Pyroclastc rocks erupted through water Eruption of magma ‘water results in another suite of charac: voleanic products which include the hyaloclastites (described in Section posed of fine-grained ash-grade pyroc- jematerial termed ash- or tuf-rings. Similar pyroclastic material is formed by eruption from larger composite vol lakes, or during subacrial ‘water are: Aceretionary lapi which are small spheres ‘or be composed wholly of concen~ syers of fine-grained ash (as in in a medium of condensed moisture (cloud and/or rain) within an eruption column. deposits 6 Mag eK) a aganet median diameter, Md® showing the fields 85Impact structures, commonly eruption. Both pyr deposits may show evidence for che cal and mineralogical (compositional) monly, block water-saturated impact structures are characte pyroclastic deposits erupted in wee conditions. Many pyroclastic s parts of a characteris sequence of depo ve fall and flow oA Fig.620 Impa 20cm in diameter. 86 wn. The change may be. gradval oughoutthe sheet or abrupt withinit and the composition represented 6.3 Summary of the field character- ies of volcanic rocks ‘omprise lava flows icks. Lavas have Magma. within the magma, chamber such that, for example, the fist erupted 7flows of andesite and dacit steep-sided extrusions of more 4 Fall deposits are well-sorted, may blanket the topography, whereas flow deposits are_more poorly rocks resul 12 of magma by voles yw-temperature lahars and debris flows. fe plate margi lar and globular minor clude cone-sheets, ring-dykes, lacco- ths and also voleanic plugs and diatremes (cf. Section 7.2) ‘The emplacement sand ring-dy! faulting associated of craters and cald 7A Dykes and sills ‘The commonest form of minor intru- sions are termed dykes and 5.6 and 7.1). A dyke (US, dil intrusion that 7 Minor intrusions RREBESION ey Fig. of dyes (however, exten ‘emplaced only sedimentaryin terms of their relationship to the country rocks, Many extinct and eroded voleanic areas are characterized by the occurrence of dykes and erupted. The ic equival 8 & 6.1). Thus a plagioclase and only in thin troup, the lamprophyres (Table 4 in mineral compo- and texture from normal pluto- hic and volcanic rocks, form minor 0within the Ivkes and cone- m- oF coarse-grained in texture and are more commonly of mafic rath For minor intrusions, itis important to study the igneous margins and the contact with the country Chapter rusion; a large varia grain-size implies emplacement of ter magma into cooler country rocks than does a lesser degree ‘A margin that is not sh ie nari ee expla il warms or hot country. rocks The Sons Irequenty show the effec of ihemalmetamorpbion. For. al minor " is limited to within «mete, or at most fom oups y often be ‘Thus, if more cerned by lor geog: © outcrops episodes of injection by the same kind of minor intrusion may be strated (cf of one type within another. Also, minor intrusions can be related regional tectonic activity, such as fold- ing and faulting, and the relative ages should also be determined (Figs. 7.6, 7.7). The emplacement of edded strata may also lead to ionships which may interpreted. For example, it is sometimes easy to confuse trans- gressions by sills with faulting (Fig 7.7). The absence of offsets in the beds above and below the sill (Fig. 7.7) confirms that this represents a simple transgression, whereas Fig. 77e shows 2 sill (and the enclosing rocks) offset Fig. 77 A sequence of srt (b)ora completely concorda tnd the pos fault plane enables (6) tobe diplexes, and these are described in detai 0. In rarer cases, a.m ple intrusion might be composed of two contrasted magma types. These in which phenocrysts concentrated in entre of the intrusion reflect more rapid magma flow compared with that at the margins. Hower’ example, from intrusion of a this is termed a multiple formation of m favoured by emplacement at sufficient depth for cooling to be suffice be partially molten atthe time of emplacement ofthe net sion. A particular association of multiple dykes termed a sheeted com plex, forms part of ophiolite com- slow for dykes 4 might also reflect compo of aphyrie and porphyritic mag: centre of a minor intru: ‘an aphyric margin sharply separated grained aphyric mat neneraly exceeding 50 min thickness. Such sills may have a layer or layers rich in dense minerals such as olivine, pyroxene and Fe-Ti oxides near to the ba 10). These grained lower margi be complemented fare charac- grained and/or more felsic material in the upper part. These include sharp- ided veins, irregular segregations and irregular ‘di reaks termed schlieren. They vary from fine-grained pyroxene, amphil ‘They are then te general the crystallizing magma. je segregations in quarte-bearing are_ fine-grain ‘and granophyre those in quartz-free, olivine Is are often’ quartz- free gabbro. or diorite, containing zeolites and/or foid minerals. 95,; iy would normally con- mapping the pipe boundaries 97 Fig. 7.11 Voleanie vent breccia. Greenscoe vent, English Lake view = ca, 50 em. 9%and collecting a representative suite of rock samples contemporaneous Sharp chilled contacts (ef. Fig features such a pe chat are genera 7.3. High-level subvolcanic inteu- such as quartz, feldspar and zeol “These are interpreted as vapour ca sions. Such intrusions may be approx- imately circular or elliptical in outcrop with a diameter of 1-4 km, form arcuate outcrops that may have been emplaced by subsidence of an block as part of a ring inteu- 9 might tion of a fluid phase under low cot ing pressure and hence provides evi- dence of Fig. 7.3 Dr [Anort granite), Width of field of view = 10 cm. 98 High-level intrusions may contain the range of xenoliths and inclusions described in Section 4.6 and these are sometimes more conspicuous nea the upper. margins than in deeper-leve marusiont. in. particular, high-level ie rocks, and there should be made of g 74 Summary of the field character- istics of minor intrusions | 1 Minor intrusions may be divided ito linear-tabular and circular- globular groups. form and dyke isa tabula across horizontal or gen planar struc globular form include and cone-sheets. Rin circular’ in plan dipping conta emplacement central block, whereas cone-sh have inward dipping conta 4 Minor intrusions may be emplaced by successive injection of magma lar composition (termed xrusions) or by magma mn (compo site intrusions), and some intru- sions show composi for diferentiation in sit by pro cesses such as erystal seeing and liple of contrasted compo: cular or tabular inteu- grained igneous rock h voleanic rocks may emplaced at a high igh-level8 Plutonic rocks I: the calc-alkaline association 8.1 Introduction to Chapters 8-11 Plutonic rocks in the cale-alkaline rusions emplaced at de of several kilometers (cf. Chapter 5) and are composed of medium coarse-grained rocks (cf. ize as_metamorphi such as gn reflect magmatic processes (e.g. con veetional alignment chamber) quite similar structures can be developed when plutonic rocks are subject to post-consolidation d ation, At low pressure-t conditions, such might be responsi close-spaced fracture cleavage inl ic rock (Fig. 84). Along cleavage Is may be broken, amounts of diorite and gabbro. In recent years, there have been renewedOrigin Mode: setting (ef. Table 1.1) granitoids into tec ‘groups using a range of graphic and. geochemical biotite, or two-mica, granites. 1ough some granitoids have trans esses at destructive plate margins Section 1.2). About 100,000 km of considerable internal Mapping of the Peru costal bathé based on careful tracing of internalintrusion, leaving residual towards the centre of the intrusion jquids terpret % provid earl vaded by a younger gran then the best way of res was emplaced. These internal might well be complex, |, for magma mixing je clues about agma when t Eom BQ orn 25: Coc rk 9s between the di ing how the cluding ing-dykes and been mapped by taking advantage of plex shows the Huaura complex in sreater det be much less plutons(Gee also. Chapter -, any metamorphic eff regional jointing or new ‘mineral bands (foliation country rocks. which contain internal structures 1 have survived a later stage of metamor- during which new country k fabrics, devel the fabrics in adjacent country rock oF gne compositionally banded rocks, re- spectively; see Fry, 1984). Some syn- small discordant igne tion complexes. The terms mige ixture of pre- cogether with which may be emplaced i ly metamorphosed rocks at high crus- " eroded area west Finland “The block diagras region in which the shape and meta ‘morphic fabrics of syn-tectonic bodies meta-sedimentary[Gabbro QQ rpnibatite ones the igneous body and/or from leachi ry rocks by hydrothermal id occurrences of hyd- may provide a whether the body might be miner: forms that may be encountered and recogni Table 4 ification, in which quartz orth wed recall or argc ate ie of a works (see examples usually contain one : 2 ‘propylitic alteration, in which plaioclase feldspar alters to epidote “109kn (in relation to se 9 4 km aleration that occur in and around nes of wall-rackals found in association ns Table 8.2. Characteristics of common metalliferous with igneous intrusi Chemical Usual colour and streak c ee 4 = Usa form Hades formula : Mineral Metallic Usually occurs as vei 35-40 4143 encrustations, occasional small cubic cr Cues, Chaleopyrite Metallic Smooth, shiny or striated crystals, often forms good cubes Pyrite Fes: Massive, occasio Arsenopy scaly aggregates 1.01.5 47-48 Molybdenite of flexible laminae. Lead grey, occasionally sreenish-grey; dark grey streak scratched Massive cubic erysta 25 72-76 Lead grey, som Ke brows tarnishes: dark grey streak Sphalerie 20s Yellow-brown, good rystals sometimes black yellow-brown streak Galena = Resinous Massive, but occasional 35-40 39-42 fibrous or cubic crystals Wolfram FewO, Black, s nes dark Sub- 5.0-5.5 TAPS brown often associated metallic with scheelite; dark yellow-brown streak Scheel cawo, White, pale green or pale 455.0 59-61 yellow; white streak occasional rectangular ad- pris, sometimes spar, but striate fluoresces in UV light) Cassiterite White to pale yellows Brilliant J, fibrous, 60-70 68-71 oon crystal disseminated pale yellow streak faces, smal grainsFig. 8.12. (a) Graphic granite ci (quartz crystals ina feldspar matrix. The Grystals sometimes look like ancient hiero- ) characters, Area show obi et ina ganic pronase ‘ea pers of te orbicules vary in their ‘ere proportions of feldspar and mai i enw 75 18 (©) Fedoparpheoocya in Shap pane (Contra, "Engand) showing rapa tcrure involving the gow of placate trandc; around kal flapar core Aes Shown is 5 cm m4 84° Distinctive granitoid textures brief descriptions of several though rather uncommon, within large feldspar cry 8.12a) and take on the appearanc runic characters. If the quart perhaps groundmass of a porphyritic gra hen the texture ts granophyre (and is often only. visible’ in. thin section). Rocks with granophyrie texture are fine-grained porphyritic gra ites and granites (high-level most frequently as mi Orbicalar granite (Fig. 8.126) tains large ovoid bodies (orbi layers forming orbicules are often si happened during ation, analogous to that responsible for igneous lamination (Sect orbicules accreted available crystals from the magma before final consoli dation of leucocratic material in the salmon pi tled by a feldspars are 101 most phenocrysts in. which are euhedrs 8.5. Metamorphic aureoles This brief section on metamorphic aureoles is re because aureoles are best developed around granitoid (granodiorite and granite) intrusions emplaced within “a few Kilometres of the Earth's surface, where there is liable to be a marked contrast between the temperature of the intrusion (a.700-1000°C) and the country rocks (< 200°C), Aureoles reflecting metamorphism in the tem- Perature range 200-700°C are charac- teristically up to 2-3 km wide around granitoid intrusi effects up to only a few metres from Section 52) The types are summarized 8.3; these characteristic inerals provide a basis for mapping and studying aureole zones such as discussed for the high ow pressure vemtary sequ= ences, refer to Fry (1984), 8.6 Summary of the field character- istics of cale-alkaline intrusions Cale-alkaline plutons comprise dif- ferent» proport grained rocks: granite, granodior and with subordinate diorite and gabbro. Plutons may show evidence of emplacement by stoping; that is, the fracturing of the roof and ‘incorporation of country rock xenoliths. Together, a large number of individual plutons (each 1-50 km in cross-section at outcrop, and roughly equi dimensional), may comprise ith. When examining plu- (i) Describe and determine the relative proportions of rock- types present; use Table 8.1 if a preliminary tectonic interpret- required. Examine contact relations to age relations. Study the nature and distri of xenoliths. Examination of individual plutons ‘small-scale layering oF lamination (0.0110 m), oF zoning 1sTable 8.3 Mineralogical and textur Impure limestone (ine. dolomite) Sandstones Basic voleanic rocks fects of contact metamorphism of ‘minerals and textures not defined here, refer to Therease tn degree of ched, leading to ing mineralogical assemblages may develop a5 the contact is approached: + clay fine, forsterite) + amphibole (tren serpentine + chiorite + tremol (Carpyroxene) + garnet (Ca-N larite and andradite) * pyroxene ( diopside). These changes are ace: ble, The thickness Mg rich pyroxene by recrystal- sequence of miner: ralopcal changes may develop as the contact is approached: (i) de spots"; (i) large crystals (or porph ‘of andalusie (chiasolite) (Fig. 8.142 cordierite-andalusite-biotite. These changes are accompanied by progressive reerystaliza ocks (these are usually banded ale deformation as a result of b). These zones may within a few metre around large intrusions. ical changes; the semblages may develop as ‘nlorite-amphibole 9.1. Definitions, general features and occurrence The term ‘all ap plied to both volcanic and intrusi associations varying from _ basi through intermediate to acid composi tions in terms of their silica satura but which are rich in the alkali ee- ments, sodium and potassium. Alka- line associations are usually defined purely chemical terms, using plots K,O or NaO + K,O against SiO, resulting from laboratory analysis. Such definitions are reasonably consi tent with mineralogical distinctions that can be recognized in the field, such as the abundance of alkali feld~ spar in many mesoeratic and leucocra tic rocks, and the occurrence of ‘minerals in mafic (eg. alkali basalt or sabbro) and mesocratic(e-. nephe syenite) rocks. Granites and syenites are sometimes termed alkaline on the basis of having a very hi 1 of ala to plagioclase feldspar — mineralogic is embo- died in the OAPF Fig. 4.8 and Appendix recommended below). elements, calcium and aluminium a Plutonic rocks II: the alkaline association often used to distinguish peralkaline termed A-type ‘S-types (Table 8.1). ‘There are two kinds of acid-basc kale associations’ that may be defined using the QAPF diagram: the alkali feldspar grar nite-syenite~ gabbro association (labelled “1” n Fig 9.1a) which is often bimodal, ( granite and gabbro with no syenite) Sind the alkali feldspar syenite-syenite- foid.syenite-foid gabbro. association (labelled *2" in Fig, 9.12). In the field it will usually be possible ro recognize ‘hich of these associations is represen- ted, particularly from the most acid Tocks which will be rich in. alkali feldspar and have more (alkali feldspar granite) oles alkali feldspar syente) than 20% visible quartz. Accompany- ing either kind of alkali association, and possibly genetically related tothe alkaline rocks as the most basic rocks resent, massive shet-like anorthosite yodies sometimes occur (see Chapter 11 for further detail) ‘Alkaline rocks are very much less ‘common than cale-alkaline types, with the possible exception of parts of the 19Precambrian geological record. Most of the better known examples, th abundant rapakivi grani tion 8.4), are confined to Proterozoic ranging for hundreds of kilometres in length where the under tension. But younger examples, such as the plex showing subdivision into leveloped in the following time sequence: , Western Red Hill; 4, Eastern Re tres 2-4 are mainly ll spar associations are generally confined 10 individual centres, of groups of cen- have prominent contact metamorphic tive alkaline rock-types and their mineralogy Alkaline rocks are often hig tive in appearance and the following hotes summarize some of ed, in most other w: | characteristics (see also 9.2.1 Alkali feldspar granites These are often very leuco he ype of to recognize the type wer, by defn ar exceeds 90% of the in an alkali feldspar grey needles of ole riebeckite, OF ree tangularcrytals of green Byron aegirine red-brown acmite), perhaps forming up to 15% of the Tock, are characteristic minor consti= 121misidentified as quartz. The main problem, therefore, is that of identi- fying small amounts, perhaps only 10%, of foid minerals in hand spec mineral content from 10 to 60% (Fig. 4.8) foid syenites become progress ively easier to identify. partularly as the nepheline may take on a greenish mens which, again, are dominated by r and, more especially if blue or alkali feldspars and lesser amounts of yellow foid minerals (sodalite and mafic minerals. The best ways of cancrinite respectively) are present. ‘overcoming this problem in the field is Foid_ gabbros in alkaline associations to examine weathered surfaces, where usually have pale-grey, green or white quartz tends to be smooth whereas feldspar, comprising about 50-60% of nepheline becomes pitted and etched _ the rock. Rocks which are considerably by. alteration. With increasing foid richer than this in feldspar are often Carbonatites Fig. 9.3. The Fen al complex include vol various forms of foid syer 124 also found and these are_ better described as anorthosites (see Fig. 4.10 land Chapter 1) pes of post-intrusive alte 1ay be responsible for the pro alkaline rocks from feldspathic and/or quartzo- feldspathic rocks; for example, some Precambrian examples apparently developed in association ‘with emplacement of carbonati ldspar_and. alk: 1 the original ly meta rocks are tively known as fenites, and the process by which they are formed is termed fenitization 9.3 Summary of the field character- intrusions resemble those for calc alkaline intrusions (Section 8.2) ‘The main rock-types, summarized in Tabl ‘mafic minerals feldspar, and s alkali 5 than10 Plutonic rocks III: mafic-ultramafic associations types. may ultramafic 1opyroxene-bearing gab- bros through to rocks in which orthopyroxene is more abundant, and. instead of gabbro. Thus, no gabbro-like rock with 35-60% gioclase feldspar and 35-65 orthopyroxene, which is often bronze- coloured. However, itis the ultramafic rocks that the greatest eralogic: ‘mafic mineral const of the 10% vine, clinopyroxene and orthopyrox- ene may become constituents, and ids to the discrimination of peridotites (> 4 nites (> 60% pyro} less common varie 41 In general, peridot mid-green to black, medium orc grained rock-type when fresh, the olivine in many. ex become altered to the dul colour of serpent suites (Chapters 8 and 9), over 90 circular or equidim: oss-sections. Su been emplaced in within-pl land and continental margi representing ‘oceanic _ lithosphere emplaced tectonically by obdui suture zones. TI splexes; they include lavas, dykes Seugay’teture. Pyrosenites have less tendency to ateraifon and are Black or greenshblack i though abundant onhopyroxe faves bronze col occasional shiny grains of phlogopite ‘mica and less commonly Fe-Ti oxide mineral grains such, as magnetite and chrom which form small black granular clus ters. A rare, but economically impor tant and easily identified rock type, chromitite (Fig. 10-2), occurs as layers in ultramafic’ intrusions. This is a heavy medium grained melanocratic ‘granular rock in which black, euhedral chromite grains are enclosed in a matrix of clinopyroxene and/or olivine, Fig. 10.1, Fibre Peridotte from South Norway Specimen 15cm, 10.2 Continental mafic-ultramafic intrusions centre than at the perimeter, ic. they are lopoliths (cf. Chapter 5). Most of picture 4 2m, them contain medium- to coarse grained ultramafic, gabbroic, leuco- gabbro and even anorthositc (Chapter 11) lithologies as shown in Fig. 10.3; together these rock-types form a series ‘of. repetitive, or rhythmic | layers (with igneous lamination) which crys tallized within a magma chamber fed by mafic/ultramafic magma. The ter- minology for layered rocks is based on clas texture and lateral extent. They may be graded in terms of mineral and grain-size, and the com: case is for upward-grading. om dense to. les-dense (date £0 104).late as being dase (ef. Fig. 3.13 ‘The contacts between layers vary between sharp and gradation concordant and_ discordant layer. Bo terms ‘grain-size’, ‘modal (i.e. mineral Broportion) and “extwal fora field lescription. Hence it is possible to describe an outcrop of gabbroic cumu- gabbro with smaller pyroxene erystals, showing planar lamination of plagioe Fig. 104 Gradk the Bushveld Co ering in gabbeos fom ler, South Africa. Lens 100m jreasing crystal size and band width increasingly Ieucocratic rocks decreasing contrast be ween bands ountry racks anorthosite and leucocratic gabbro (very coarse) Fig. 10.3. Schem: various features des In many intrusions, the layering fap show complex” mediumacale fersrures, such a chan Tn some case, 3 a crystallized cumulate appear to have Slumped into younger layered cumu fates. ‘These features are similar to common sedimentary structures and thee occurence provides evidence of esses that deform and slump soft {Elimen and donor cenarly require crystal setln Min describing layered rocks, large scale repetition of particular types of observed. Such repe nspicuous, involving the systematic recurrence of layers or sequences of the same layers, and is termed rhythmic layering (eg. uppermost and lowermost layers in Fig. 3.13). These were described from the Skaergaar sion, which is charac ‘occurrence of modally g sew aed exc matte (sharp margins) Schlieren (diffuse margins. and later Minor intrusions, such as dykes and sil : Ona ot se in most of the large-scale intrusions, the proportion of felsic material increaser upwards Tis. 103) in some ec gig Yay to granitic rock inthe uppermor Tayes, Individual layers vary upwards from a few cenimetres (most typical) to metres and perhaps tens of metres Leceponaiy nhc upper repos of berween layers tends 10 be much les than near the base) Acewate obseroa- tions of band orientations, widths and their variation normal to the layering therefore provide important criteria for later interpretation of field work. ‘An example of a. mafic-ultramafic layered intrusion isthe Bushveld Complex, shown by the map in Fig. 10.5a: the intrusion is ca. 450 km in diameter and ea. 9 km in thickness. At the margins of the Bushveld, where it is emplaced into clastic sedimentary and voleanic lithologies, a. ‘border group” has been mapped, comprising thin sills of fine- to medium-grained gabbro, norite and pyroxenite. The vast bulk of the Complex is divided into four zones on the basis of rock- type and internal variations (Fig. 10:5 ‘The lower zone, comps form orthopyroxer interlayered olivine harzburgites, termed the “c because of its and hence its critical economic import taining interlayered norites near the top with there are several prominent cho layers, each up to 1.5 m thick (Fig. 10.2), and also sulphide segregations, including a layer called the ‘Merensky reef, which contains iron-nickel- copper sulphides and important pltinum-group minerals. Above the zone is the main comprises. thick, rather upper zone con” rmelagabbros, with rmagnetite-rch gabbros and anor~ thosite-magnetite layers near the top. Av younger granite suite — thought to be unrelated, magmatical to the Bushveld Compiex — over and conceals the layered rocks in the centre of the ourerop (Fig: 10-5) 129 ijae gabbro a rr) be present section through the Bushveld Compl 130 structures and. 10.6 (cf. Fig. 3.15) in the eritical zone and near 1e upper zone where major er the sequence he coin Ur pany high-grade metamorphic rocks. More simply, they may have been intruded as part of a larger igneous province gabbros of Skye in rious combinations of sions are homogeneous gabbros, peri jotites or even dunites, others show lex, multiple’ intrusions with mappable internal boundaries. Small usions of dunite are sometimes found in high grade gneiss zones where they may be only 2 few tens of around their {a5 well as serpentine, may f secondary Many etnias f ithosphere. Such atbodies are termed ophioltes and_are preservedasa result of thrusting and/or he field and ps characteristics that et of the fo been fou Typical ep (kr). oop sea sediments P4178 layered gabbro, anorthosite pl zone of Fig. 107 Petrlogical section through 132 3 ophioite sequence (further details in tex) ophiolite bodies are rarely but tend to occur as inter- :ittent elongate bodies aligned along a zone of major thrusting, such as the Alps and Himalayas. Within each cophiolite body, the rock-types often become progressively more ultramafic towards the base (remember, though, that the sequence may be dipping or even inverted due to tectonic emplace- ment). Ideally, the base may be seen to rest on a thrust zone which may be identified in the field by the presence of deformed and fragmented ultrama- fic rocks within the ophiolite, overly- ing, usually with sharp petrological and structural contrast, the local «crustal rocks ‘The basal sequence, itself the most variable in thickness, ranging up to km normal to the dip of the base, may comprise generally unlayered mixtures ized_peridotites, usually fabries, bur sometimes including zones of recognizable dunite and harzbur- gite. These rocks are interpreted as a ntle sequence’ from which the par: tial melts that formed the overlying (ocean crustal) layers have been extracted, Gverlying the mantle sequence, there are on thickness of fred mafi-ultramafic of layered ie successions of dunites, sand other peridotites or may occur and there is hat repeated influxes of at ciferent Teves within the layered sequence each generated a cye~ ie unit. Ths, ween the maori of layered. gabbros, mores and olivine gabbros, with increasing. am leucogabbro and anorthos towards the top of the layered sequence, parts of the sequence may be repeated due to m intrusion. ‘The white ‘anorthositic’ rocks of ophiolites are usually rich in sodium- rich plagioclase feldspar and some of them cont quartz (up to 30 plagiogranite is more appropriate. The layered sequence is usually interpreted as representing an ocean crustal magma chamber which, in the same way as it received successive magma batches, gave rise to the overlying dykes ‘and lavas by venting and emplacement of magma from its upper fabbeo’ (dark grey). from the Oman ophiolite. Length of hammer is Im. The top of the layered sequence is marked by a decreasing proportion of Course grained rocks and the appear ance of medium- to fine-grained dyke rocks trending approximately at right angles o the layering below. Higher in the ophiolte sequence, these dykes 133rapidly become a sheeted complex, in which almost all the outero ‘occupied by interpenet thick. sheets 104 Summary of the field charac- teristics of mafic-ultramafie intru- ‘means that, dark-green deeper lev Process may continue for some time at ‘ne focus of injection as shown sche: 10.19, The sheete tay be ca, 1 km complex of dykes display excellent igneous layering and lamination. Individual layers may range petrologically from the extremes of anorthosite important chro- 2 wide variety of 65, tO and gab bros: the layers should be described in terms of grain. size, modal ‘mineralogy and texture (ck. Figs 0.3, 105). Penetrative, disruptive to the penetration fof magmatically-heated sea water gh cracks and fissures when the chalcopyrite and formed (see rals. Where a m ferromanganoan ments, known as ligament ee ot jcauted me- and sedimentary” sm srucores Perey iodine eee eens mamorehien tee Fp, 12.1) fag sive ‘exhalative' sulphide ore bodies toate frequently ‘displayed ‘by the preserved at ihc Yop ‘of os other dykes, theagwene, 7 Serine tke per aia of ‘ergs epi where og , Stance ee the” ocean crust: sul sulphide casey cores (cer baw a aout afer 2 2 bodi a melagabbro and anorthosite) exist More oo inyers In wer pres mafic ay mat tmrounss of cope Upward, and reidal bquds fom osher rns : ther fnconalerysalcndoh ey fan be frolre towards panits Giaaia only for ther deep Bat also forthe” 3. Most oph aie oa: a longste our bmbers ey ae general fc towards the base and from the bottom. wards should comprise com- tions of: 2 basal ‘mantle’ sequence of jeformed dunite, harzburgite and pyroxenite, 13511 Plutonic rocks IV: anorthositic and charnockitic associations grey ormeans that commo! with greater amoui ysical data) to havea sheet complexes may therefore involve no more than a few of granitoid Anorthosites a a few per cent of Fe-Ti oxide minerals i. marble and carbons Chapter 9) org case, hardness is ‘ several rocks may. es. Perhaps as bands or Medicine Bow Mis, igncos complex of frockeypes 3 ad‘most commonly, pars of an anortho- site body may grade through anor- hositic gabbro (65-85% pl morite (20- clase, 35-80% mafic miner- orthopyroxene); note that norites rather than gabbros ‘mon in these complexes. 11.2 Charnockitic associations Besides biotite (or amphibole) granites and alkali feldspar granites, another minor group of Known as chemo complexes, sometimes i with anorthosites (cf. Fig. 1.3). In the literature, these are loosely defined as, ‘orthopyroxene-bearing rocks of diorite to. granite composition, i.e. they are quartz-feldspar ort Pyroxene-bearing rocks (which sometimes contain brown iron-rich olivine, fayalite). One in recognizing charnoc quently. they” are_ dec coloured, showing, right-angled cleavag often helps with charnockite ider cation. The igh-pressure meta: of normal granodiorites and in the high pressure— erature granulite facies (see Fig jummary of the field charac of anorthositic and charno- ckitic intrusions Anorthosites contain 90% or more Plagioclase feldspar, which is commonly white, pale grey or brown, together amounts of pyroxene, olivine or Fe-Ti oxide. They occur as layers within larger mafic bodies, or as sheet-like intrusions in association with alkaline complexes. Chamockites are quartz-feldspar- ‘orthopyroxene rocks usually pro- duced by high grade metamor- phism of normal granites and Branodiorites; in the field, the original intrusions therefore appear strongly deformed. Reference has been made at v: points in this field il metamorphic fabrics (e.g. ogy introduced in Fig 8.8), to the kinds of complex. that result from repeated phases of meta morphism and intrusion (e.g Fig. 8.9) and to some of the rock-types pro: duced by regional metamorphism of igneous rocks (e.g. charn ing fom gana fa ‘metamorphism). This chapter provides 2 brief summary of the main rock types that are encountered (a) when ‘igneous rocks are metamorphosed and (©) in zones of ‘ultrs-metamorphism’ where igneous and metamorphic rocks ae literally “mixed” and interlaminated to form migmatite complexes. Further deals of the terminology and rock- ‘ypes introduced here can be found by consulting the further eading list, and the complementary field guide 10 ‘metamorphic rocks (Fry, 1984). Metamorphosed igneous rocks may be recognized and distinguished from metamorphosed sed (3) having an ove sition corresponding to igneous rocks as described earlier, (b) preservation of igneous textures (Chapter 4) and fscognition ‘of igneous field re tionships such as-cross-c and contacts ‘igneous rocks takes place under a 12 Metamorphism range of conditions from low pressure and temperature (low-grade) to high pressure and temperature (high-grade) (Fey, 1984 Secon 5), Under cond tions of low-grade metamorphism, igneous rocks may stain the chemical composition of the original rock (except for the addition of HzO and CO,), the textures may be slightly obscured by alteration and shearing (Gf. Fig. 8.4) of the igneous minerals (ep. conversion of male mineral 10 chlorite, and of feldspars to epidote and white mica) and. igneous eld relationships may be clearly preserved. However, with increasing itamor phic grade, textures and. field rela- tionships " become progressively obscured, so that high-grade meta- morphism may lead to complete recrystallization of the _ original igneous texture, loss of original relationships and possible changes in chemical composition beyond the loss of HO. (termed metasomatism). Further information on the meta: of igneous rocks is given in 12.1 Metamorphism of igneous rocks First, some definitions of textures that ‘which ay apply to igneous rocks whic have undergone metamorphism:Foliation describes a planar structure recognizable in hand specimens ‘metamorphic minerals, usually micas, have grown at right’ angles to. the dominant stress direction Rocks in which micaceous foliation is sounced are termed schists, and the well-developed panar foliated texture is known as schistosity. A coarse grained banded rock in which there is irregular bands of granular felsic and mafic minerals is known as a gneiss. A particular distinctive texture in meta- morphosed granitoid rocks occurs where micaceous foliation is wrapped around centimetre sized pools of sagen (German ‘eyes’; crystals of spar with ‘tals’ parallel to the ation), and is known as augen (see 1251). identify the igneous and meta morphic minerals present, the to aid recognition of the ori igneous rock-type and the latter evaluate the grade of metamorphism, Bear in mind that, altho phic minerals may grow they in Fry, 1984, Chap. at retrograde meta- e.g. amp basalt retrograded retrograded ‘mineral assemblages are. rar dispersed thr etrogressed assemblages t0 be recognized away from inte rely the rock tex id specimen and out particular, the logical and structural led out- crops over a com body to be defi phases of ed to new mineral growth, I description of such stu outside the sco pressure and Depth (kn) min the greenschist co lower Je chlorite assemblage,pressurelow temperature morphism gives i blueschi | which are character amphibole and pyroxene-rich rocks, and to eclogite, pressure encountered temperature recrys to gneissose fabrics gneisses in these are ly banded horsfels | Table tures ofthese rock-types, as viewed in 1d specimen, and should be used for ide purposes In contrast tothe minerals of met morphosed basic rocks, the quartz and alkali feldspars of relativ darker nds vary in es 10 tens of 12.4) Although many width from metres (eg Table 121 Characteristic features of metabasic rocks in different metamorphic Rock-iype Colour, grain size and texture Mineralogy i= maim gren, usually Hort, epidos white mics e-grained; se Greenschise Pal spars Eclogite dark-green red d ‘blue kyanite gneisses (so-called be shown from Fig. 123.) French Alps, showing gneiss Colorado, other metasedimentary strata, and preservation “of sedimentary ac- tures, to have a sedimentary origin, st gneisses (orthogneises) a lieved to be rocks. These take their names from the mineral composition of the parental rock which appears in the gneis itself (e-,diorite gneiss, granodiorite gneiss, et) 122. Migmatite complexes There is a large area of overlap between igneous and metamorphic rocks, and this is particularly evident among coarse-grained _ leucocratic rocks.” Migmatites fall across this boundary and literally comtain a mix- ture of the features characteristic of 145rock groups. By definition, rocks con igneous or intimately interba igneous material (the neosome); this usually dominated by quartz and/or feldspars (the leucosom: nally is mafic ey often have ple usually show clear evidence of igneous take the form of veins or ly appear to provide 4 Ke inclusions of paacos through the pi palacosome. For fact that migm: yen associated 2 gneiss : Jeucosome magma spaces between bow and broken) blocks cructures in less-competent layers that flow leucosome may be brosdly parallel to the inexisting host as distinct from the the palaeosome inclusions are tapered development of leucocratic bands dur and twisted, and show new metamor- ing syn-tectonic gneiss formation. phic textures developed during In gmatic-structured migmatites migmatization. The ressure- +d iiaph tn) ed Sacre terms Pee ce ue References and further reading ighly folded vca-the sepregaions, igpater detloped” win tietye or ‘ptygmae’ (Greek, ‘folded matter), much higher than for types in whi Spear ctgune ee ate aes trained aggregates of quartz and feld- Spars. The veins. are’ discordant. to logic conclusion, achliren give way Books containing sections on relevant practical techniques for field studies structures in the palaeosome but the to. nebulitc-structured —migmatites Baroces,J.W. (1941) Basic Geological Mapping, Geological Society Handbosk fold limbs are often. parallel to (Fg, 12.5h), in which the paleosome The Open Unversy Pres hlton Reysiabea Pcs New: Yor schistosity in the host, implying that and leucosome can no longer be separ- Toronte: 112 pp. shear ‘movemenes along schittosiy though the “ghost Cox, K.G,, Price, N.B. oe Harte, B (1974) The Practical Study of Crystals planes may play some part in their ed. Further Misia andl Roki; Londda McGraw development. However, the occurr ‘the migma- Dieraict, RV. a Skinwen, BY. (1979) Roc ence of peygmae in pala tite structures described here can be ‘New York/Brabene Tononnc, Wiley 319 ur schist indie found in Mehner’s (1968) book on Fay, N. (1984) The Field Description of Metamorphic Rocks, Geological Society gin may be more complex (a summary this subject Handbook, ‘The Open University Press, Mi 1es/Halstead Press, New ‘of hypotheses appears in Mchnert, _ Migmatites are widespread in the York/Toronto, 119 pp. 1968). Augen structure in migmatites Middle to Late Precambrian terrain of Laren, PI (S18) PEL’ Geology: New York London Todd! Meese (Fig. 12.58) usu by comprises Teuco- many continental interiors; particu- 326 op. asia) 8) ' rete pe dered lat selbionwn Sample omar is Mostity, F. (1981) Methods in Field Geology, Oxford/San Francisco, W.HL Within ‘an carer palacosome fabric Finland. where migmates, grants ro frowth A dsincton amadcboreen 70% Sfelaslare Haale nal sre TC Tie Bild Derpein of Seder Recaro & d 2 Society Handbook, The Open University Press, Milton Keynes/Halstead tus auge-arctredmigmaties, in cuin: i perhaps wise 0 ee which the palacosome contains relict large number of outcrops before metamorphic structures, and augen describing a rock-ype as.2 definite General texts concerned with igneous rocks gases (Setion 121), in which the migmaie, There are many example Cas, RAE, « Waren, J.V, (1987) ldspars seqrezted di of deformed granitond rocks that are ete Allen ac Uneia avd op Imarphism that produced a simple aly smigmat inthe ‘mind? Corman, RG. (1977) Ophiohtes: Ancient Oceanic Lithosphere? Heidelberg, thislitincon canbe madein the term i best used ina reiona Core meen y with careful attention tothe when firm proof of melt mobilization deta of fabric and texture companying oF post-dating. mets Migmatites in which the mechanical morphic deformation hasbeen of both constituents was recorded, Fi term migrate treater than that of the examples pre-compler is preferred for field use ously described may form seblieren- the tem migmatte for an ind like srctres (Fig, 12.58), in which rock specimen vals, Chichester/ Volcanic Sue i, J. (1973) Granit Origin of Granites, Ams 393 pp. Evans, A.M. (ed.) cid Magmatism, 385 pp. Fistter, R.V. and Scumanne, H.-U, (1984) Pyrodlastc New York/Tokyo, Springer’ Verlag, 472 pp. Invine, T.N. (1982) Macponatn, G.A. (1972) Mesivent, KR (1968) Mi 393 pp. tams, H. a McBianey, A.R. (1979) Volew Cooper & Co., 397 pp. Berlin/Heidelberg/ sions’, J. Petrol. 23, 127-162. Hall, 510 pp. uatites and the origin of granitic rocks, Amsterdam, 1g)» San Francisco, Freeman, 149Index Acype granitoid 119 aalavasurface 69-71 fine-grained 32 filter-pressing 105 ructure 24, 25,131 arsenop, ash-flow/ash-flow tuff 80,84 51,52, 105 automorphic 33, deposits 54-56, 85-87 lamprophyres 48 Alkali metasomnatisn 125 alkaline platonic association 46, 119-125 cale-lkaline plutonic rocks/ allotriomorphic 33 association 46, 109-118 allotiomorphic granular 34 cilc-alkaline lamprophyres 48 amphibole inc. hornblende) 29,37, eakite 38, 43,47, 70, 109,117,138 39, 48,4649,66,07 102,117, camptonte 48 ies 107,108,132, eassiterite 1 7-133, | cleavage ‘ inopyroxeni ineral,-rock | 28,29,31,38, jepabbro 45, 46, 138, 140 a 42,43, 47-48 apatite 17,39,42 coarse-grained 32 124,125 aphanitic 32,33 columnar j “rock 28,31 aphyric 32, 66, 67 aplite 17, 22,24, 95, 103, 104 150hypautomorphic 33 hypidiomorphic 33 hypidiomorphic granular 34 138 ignimbrite 57, 0, 82, 84, 86 Imenite 40, 103, 127, 138 (chemical composition) melanocratic (mela-) 29-31, 42,45, 48 melanosome 146 jons 57-61, 89-99 al minerals mineralogy 28,30 molybdeni monazite 4. monchiqui mudflow 80 obsidian 67, 90 olivine 29,39, 43,45, 46, 48, 49, onthopyroxenite/olivine 43,45, 48,67, 117, 126-128, yroxenite 45, 46, 126, 127, 129-133 pahoehoe lava surface 68-71, 73 Palacosome 146-148, palagonite 72,73 granular 34 38 97, 126-133 jodule 50, 51, plagioclase feldspar anorthite) 67, 137-140 plagiogranite 132, 133, pyroclastic surge/deposit 80, 83,84, 7 pyroxene (ine. clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene) 29,.36,37,39,weathering 27 ultramafic rock 45, 46 42, 103 umber 132,134, 135 spinel 42,97 tock 61 15-21 s/vesicular texture 35, 70,71, 74, 76, 85, 87 .srondbjemize 107-109 tulfcone/-ring $5, 96 wuufsite 97 “tuff pipe 96 ‘winning (minerals) 37 542, 47, 70, 72,95, 4, 135, 183 INGEMMET INVENTARIO SIENES CULTURALES 2011 General classifieation and nomenclature of cowrse-grained