Chapter 1.

The Atom in Modern Chemistry Page 1

1. Classify the following materials as substances or mixtures: table salt, wood, mercury, air, water, seawater, sodium
chloride, and mayonnaise. If they are mixtures, subclassify them as homogenous or heterogeneous; if they are
substances, subclassify them as compounds or elements.
Mixtures: table salt (heterogeneous), air (homogenous), sea water (homogeneous), mayonnaise (heterogeneous),
wood (heterogeneous); note: mayo is made of egg and oil, both mixtures.
Substances: water (compound), sodium chloride (compound), mercury (element)

2. Classify the following materials as substances or mixtures: absolute (pure) alcohol, milk (as purchased in store),
copper wire, rust, barium bromide, concrete, baking soda, and baking powder).
Mixtures: milk (homogeneous), concrete (heterogenous), rust (homogeneous); note: rust is mixture of many
compounds/elements, baking powder (homogeneous mixture)
Substances: alcohol (compound), copper wire (element), barium bromide (compound), baking soda (compound),
note: homogeneous defn: indistinguishable parts (uniform throughout, same phase, separated by physical means);
heterogeneous defn: distinguishable parts (can be any phase, i.e. solid-solid, liquid-solid, etc.)

3. (4) Since 1800, almost 200 sincere but erroneous reports of the discovery of new chemical elements have been made.
Why have mistaken reports of new elements been so numerous? Why is it relatively easy to prove that a material is
not a chemical element, but difficult to prove absolutely that a material is an element?
Sincere but erroneous reports of new chemical elements can be attributed to distinguish between mixtures and
compounds and even more so between compounds and elements. Some compounds are extremely stable and cannot
easily be decomposed into their components. As such, it is easy to prove that it is a compound, but hard to prove that
it is not a compound and therefore an element. As for the decomposition of compounds, the right conditions have to
be found.

4. (5) A sample of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is synthesized in the laboratory. It contains 30.0 g carbon and 40.0 g
oxygen. Another sample of ascorbic acid, isolated from lemons (an excellent source of the vitamin), contains 12.7 g
carbon. [LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS]
40.0g O
12.7g C × = 16.9g O
30.0g C

5. (7) Nitrogen (N) and silicon (Si) form two binary compounds with the following compositions:

Compound Mass % N Mass % Si

1 33.28 66.72
2 39.94 60.06
(a) Compute the mass of silicon that combines with 1.000g of nitrogen in each case.
Assume 100g of compound, then

66.72g Si 2.000g Si
ratio of Si to N in compound 1: =
33.28g N 1.000g N

60.06g Si 1.500g Si
ratio of Si to N in compond 2: =
39.94g N 1.000g N
Chapter 1. The Atom in Modern Chemistry Page 2

(b) Show that these compounds satisfy the law of multiple proportions. If the second compound has the formula
Si3N4, what is the formula of the first compound?
Law of multiple proportions states that given a binary compound whose elements combine to form a series of
compounds, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other are in ratio of small integers to
each other
2.000g Si: 1.000g N 4
= (to four sig. figs. )
1.500g Si: 1.000g N 3
If the formula for the second compound is Si3N4, then the formula for the first compound could be SiN (Si3
subscript multiplied by 4/3; look at compound %).

6. (9) Vanadium (V) and oxygen (O) form a series of compounds with the following compositions:
What are the relative numbers of atoms of oxygen in the compounds for a given mass of vanadium?

Compound Mass % V Mass % O

1 76.10 23.90
2 67.98 32.02
3 61.42 38.58
4 56.02 43.98
Assume 100g of compounds,
23.90g O
= 0.3141g O: 1.000g V
76.10g V

32.02g O
= 0.4710g O: 1.000g V
67.98g V

38.58g O
= 0.6281g O: 1.000g V
61.42g V

43.98g O
= 0.7801g O: 1.000g V
56.02g V
Find ratios of O/V between compounds (law of multiple proportions)
0.3141g O: 1.000g V
= 1.000
0.3141g O: 1.000g V

0.4710g O: 1.000g V
= 1.500
0.3141g O: 1.000g V

0.6281g O: 1.000g V
= 2.000
0.3141g O: 1.000g V

0.7801g O: 1.000g V
= 2.500
0.3141g O: 1.000g V
The relative number of atoms of oxygen in the compound for any given mass of vanadium (think mol O:mol V) is in
ratios of 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 or 2, 3, 4, 5. (compound 2 is 1.5 times as rich in oxygen as compound 1; compound 3 is 2 times
as rich in oxygen as compound 1).
7. A liquid compound containing only hydrogen and oxygen is placed in a flask. Two electrodes are dipped into the
liquid, and an electric current is passed between them. Gaseous hydrogen forms at one electrode and gaseous oxygen
Chapter 1. The Atom in Modern Chemistry Page 3

at the other. After a time, 14.4 mL hydrogen has evolved at the negative terminal, and 14.4 mL oxygen has evolved at
the positive terminal.
a. Assign a chemical formula to the compound in the cell.
Law of combining gases and avogadro’s law. Assume the T and P is the same at both electrodes, given that
the volumes of different gases is equal to their masses at same T and P, then 14.4 mL oxygen and 14.4 mL
hydrogen implies (1:1 ratio) that both oxygen and hydrogen have the same number of particles, therefore the
simplest formula is OH.
b. Other formulas also apply ( O2H2, O3H3,…, OnHn ) as they also give a 1:1 ratio for # of particles.
8. (25)
Chapter 1. The Atom in Modern Chemistry Page 4
Chapter 1. The Atom in Modern Chemistry Page 5
1
9. A rough estimate of the radius of a nucleus is provided is provided by the formula 𝑟 = 𝑘𝐴3 , where k is approximately
1.3 x 10-13 cm and A is the mass number of the nucleus. Estimate the density of the nucleus of 127I (which has a molar
mass of 2.1 x 10-22 g) in grams per cubic centimeter. Compare with the density of solid iodine, 4.93 g cm-3.
4 4 1 3 4
𝑉127𝐼 = 𝜋𝑟 3 = 𝜋 (𝑘𝐴3 ) = 𝜋𝑘 3 𝐴
3 3 3
4
𝑉127 𝐼 = 𝜋(1.3 × 10−13 cm)3 (127) = 1.17 × 10−36 cm3
3
the density of the iodine nucleus then is
𝑚127 𝐼 2.1 × 10−22 g
𝜌127𝐼 = = = 1.8 × 1014 g cm−3
𝑣127 𝐼 1.17 × 10−36 cm3

10. Dalton’s 1808 version of the atomic theory of matter included five general statements (see Section 1.3). According to
modern understanding, four of those statements require amendment or extension. List the modifications that have
been made to four of the five original postulates.
1. Matter consists of indivisible atoms
Atoms are not indivisible. Can lose electrons to give species (ions) having chemical properties. Some elements
(uranium and radium) are radioactive: the nuclei of their atoms spontaneously emit or absorb subatomic particles,
a process which results in new, chemically distinct atoms.
2. All atoms of a given chemical element are identical in mass and in all other properties.
The existence of isotopes is in direct contradiction to this postulate. Isotopes have virtually identical chemical
properties, but isotope effects, such as changes in the rates of reaction, have been observed.
3. Different chemical elements have different kinds of atoms, and in particular, such atoms have different masses.
No modification needed.
4. Atoms are indestructible and retain their identity in chemical reactions.
Atoms can be split apart or fused together at the nuclear level to give new kinds of atoms in particle accelerators.
No instances of atoms changing their identity in chemical reactions are however known.
5. The formation of a compound from its elements occurs through combining atoms of unlike elements in small
whole-number ratios.
Certain solid compounds have compositions that vary within a range. They are non-stoichiometric compounds
(berthollides). The law of definite proportions is strictly true for gaseous and liquid compounds but not for solid
compounds.

𝑒 𝑆𝐸
=
𝑚𝑒 ℓ𝐿𝐻 2
𝑛

𝐴 = 𝐴1 𝑝1 + 𝐴2 𝑝2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 𝑝𝑛 = ∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1