Está en la página 1de 10



 
  

  
     

  


  
   
 
 
      
 
      
    !
 
  
!
  
  
 !
  

 
 "
     

  


  
   
 
      
    
 
  


 
   
 

 

  


*& ($%0*'1()%& 21)*)'1%0*& -% 

    &() *34566*& %)
34%       
.  7 # / 
 
 .  7 #  / 

(0%8%+$6(4)'61%)#%#%$*9*'()4)*6%#0*-%'*+:1(-%;34%<%)'%  

-%)#0(-%"-=*&>'(+()%'%&1#*&-1)%0(>*+1&+($*0*'(+$0*0#%4)(&(


-%$%64'?%%)#0%9*&6*6%#0**4):*)'(34%*'*+:1(#%%)#0%9*%)%6*'#(
*69(+%)(&-%;6<%)'1+1%)#(-%6*6%#0*%6:*)'('(:0*6(&;* #  # 
#4'61%)#%
%6*'4*)#=*  34%<%)'%%)%61)&#*)#% # &%-1'%34%%&%6

    >-%6*'4*)#=* 
34%<%)'%%)%61)&#*)#%#  &%6%66*+*
    
  


 
 




%6*-12%0%)'1*, ,%)#0%%6<*6(0)(+1)*6  >%6<*6(0%2%'#1<((-%&'()#*-(&%-1'%34%%&%6


 =  −  

   

 
     
  
    
  
   

   
 


      



  
  
  
   


   
   
  
   
  
    
 (0 #*)#( 6* $0(>%''1@) 21)*)'1%0* ( +()A
#*)#%. 7 #7 $/-%6'*$1#*6. 7 #/ %)%6$4)#(-%<*6(0*'1@),$,.$ < #/ %&

  =  −     −  =  
−    − 
%)(#*)-( ,), * 6* *+$61#4- , # − $,  -%6 1)#%0<*6( .$ 7 #/  $(-%+(&
 .− -. # − $//


$#
%&'()#*+(&, ,

%&'01:10 . 7 )/ = −  - ) = . − - )/  34% %& 6* '4*)#=* -%6 '*$1#*6 21)*)'1%0( %341<*6%)#% ( &4&#1#4#( -%6
'*$1#*6. 7 #/ %)%61)&#*)#%-%<*6(0*'1@)&1#4*-(,),4)1-*-%&-%#1%+$(*6* -%,#,

. 7 )/ = . − - )/

(+(<%+(&%6
−  - -%&'4%)#(34%&420%
%6'*$1#*6, ,%)
−   - '*-*$%01(-(4)1#*A
−   - 01(-%#1%+$(
&1%+$0%%&  - 


)
C-

(+(?*-%&%0 < . 7 )/ < &%#1%)%34%B

 < . − - )/ < ⇒  <  − - ) <  ⇒


 < ) < C -
 < - < C)
1 = %& .7 #7 $/ ≡ . #7 $/ =  − -. # − $/ >'(+(%6<*6(0-% . #7 $/ &@6(-%$%)-%-%6**+$61#4- , # − $, -%6
1)#%0<*6( .$7 #/ &1-%)(#*+(&,),-1'?**+$61#4-.(&%* ) ≡ # − $ > /$(-%+(&%&'01:10.)/ =  − - ) 34%%&


6*'4*)#=*-%6'*$1#*621)*)'1%0(%341<*6%)#%(&4&#1#4#(-%6'*$1#*6.7 # / %)%61)&#*)#%-%<*6(0*'1@)&1#4*-(,),
4)1-*-%&-%#1%+$(*6*1D341%0-*-%,#,
&#%&1&#%+*-%-%&'4%)#(%&%634%%+$6%*)6(&:*)'(&$*0*($%0*'1()%&*'(0#($6*D(

    


(& '(+$()%)#%& , , > ,#, -%6 '*$1#*6 21)*)'1%0( . 7 #/  &% 66*+*) +*9)1#4-%& $01+*01*& ( 24)-*+%)#*6%& >
'4*6341%0(#0*+*9)1#4-(:#%)1-*'(+(0%&46#*-(-%($%0*'1()%&'()6*&24)-*+%)#*6%&&%66*+*  
  .)(0+*6+%)#%&%(:#%)-0E)+%-1*)#%0%6*'1()%&-%$0($(0'1()*61-*-%)#0%'*$1#*6%&/

 
 
6 2*'#(0 -% -%&'4%)#( -%6 1)#%0<*6( . #7 #  /  &% -%)(#* <. # 7 #  /  > $%0+1#% 
'()('%0%6'*$1#*6 -1&$()1:6%%)%61)&#*)#%# &1&%'()('%%6'*$1#*6 
 = <F # 7 #  G 
-1&$()1:6%%)%61)&#*)#%#  
  . − -. #  − #  //
 < <F # 7 #  G = = =  − -. #  − #  / < 


  #  # 
 =  . − -. #  − # // %&'()#*+(& 

(0#*)#(%&  = <. #7 #  /  



:&%0<* 34% <. # 7 #  /  %& 6* '4*)#=* (:#%)1-* *6    6* -1&$()1:161-*- ( <%)'1+1%)#( -%   




  -%&-%#  *# 
I*'1%)-() ≡ #  − # 0%&46#*<.)/ =  − - ) < 7>&1) = %&<./ =  − -

  


 
6 2*'#(0 -% '()#0*-%&'4%)#( -%6 1)#%0<*6( . #7 #  /  &% -%)(#*
< H . # 7 #  /  > $%0+1#% '()('%0 %6 '*$1#*6   -1&$()1:6% %) %6  = < H F # 7 #  G 
1)&#*)#% #  &1&%'()('%%6'*$1#*6 -1&$()1:6%%)%61)&#*)#% # 

*#40*6+%)#%< H . # 7 #  / %&%61)<%0&(-%<. # 7 #  /

< H . # 7 #  / =

=  = 
 <. # 7 #  /  − -. #  − #  /
<. # 7 #  / =  − -. #  − # /

> #  # 
*$1#*61D*+(& 

(0#*)#(%&  = < H . # 7 #  / 


:&%0<*34% < H . #7 #  / %&6*'4*)#=*(:#%)1-**6   6*-1&$()1:161-*-
(<%)'1+1%)#(-%   
  -%&-%# *#  

I*'1%)-() ≡ #  − # 0%&46#*< H .)/ = C. − - )/ > 7 >&1) = %&< H ./ = C. − -/

 
 

605-1#(-%-%&'4%)#(-%61)#%0<*6( . #7 #  / &%-%)(#* -. # 7 #  / >%&%6'(+$6%+%)#(*-%62*'#(0-%-%&A
'4%)#(B
-. #7 #  / =  − <. #7 #  / = -. #  − #/

<. #7 #  / =  − -. #  − #/





-. # 7 #  / %&6*-1&+1)4'1@)-%'*$1#*6$(0'*-*  
  34%   &4-1&$()1:1A
61-*-(<%)'1+1%)#(-%&-%#  *# B


 −  . − -. #  − # //


-. # 7 #  / = = −  = −  = -. #  − # / =  − <. # 7 #  /
  
 =  . − -. #  − # //  <. # 7 #  / =  − -. #  − #  /

I*'1%)-() ≡ #  − # '(+(<.)/ =  − - ) 0%&46#*&%0-.)/ =  − <.)/ = - ) 7>&1) = %&-./ = -

  


 
6 05-1#( -% '()#0*-%&'4%)#( -%6 1)#%0<*6( . #7 #  /  &% -%)(#* - H . # 7 #  /  > %& %6 %J'%&( &(:0% 6* 4)1-*- -%6


2*'#(0-%'()#0*-%&'4%)#(
 -. #  − #/
- H . #7 #  / = < H . #7 #  / −  = − =
 − -. #  − #/  − -. #  − #/

< H . #7 #  / = 
 − -. #  − #/





 - H . #7 #  / %&%6*4+%)#(-%'*$1#*6$(0'*-*  
  34%  &4-1&$()1:161A
-*-(<%)'1+1%)#(-%&-%#*#  B


 −    
- H . #7 #  / = = − = − = −  = < H . #7 #  / − 
   . − -. #  − #//  − -. #  − #/

 =  . − -. #  − #//  < H . #7 #  / = 


 − -. #  − #/

I*'1%)-() ≡ #  − # '(+(< H .)/ = C. − - )/ %&- H .)/ = < H .)/ −  =  −  = - ) 


 − - )  − - )


1) = %&- H ./ = - 
− -
   
 
6 #*)#( (0-1)*01( -% -%&'4%)#( -%6 1)#%0<*6( . #7 #  /  &% -%)(#* δ. # 7 #  / > %& %6 '('1%)#% %)#0% %6 05-1#( -%



-%&'4%)#(>6**+$61#4--%61)#%0<*6(7$(0#*)#(%J$0%&*6*-1&+1)4'1@)-%'*$1#*6$(0'*-*  
 !
 >$(0'*-*   
*6   &4-1&$()1:161-*-(<%)'1+1%)#(-%&-%#  *# B
-. # 7 #  / -. #  − # /
δ. # 7 #  / = = =-
#  − # #  − #
-. # 7 #  / = -. #  − #  /

I*'1%)-() ≡ #  − # 0%&46#*&%0δ.)/ = -
    
 
 
6#*)#((0-1)*01(-%'()#0*-%&'4%)#(-%61)#%0<*6(. #7 #  / &%-%)(#* δ H . # 7 #  / >%&%6'('1%)#%%)#0%%605A
-1#(-%'()#0*-%&'4%)#(>6**+$61#4--%61)#%0<*6(7$(0#*)#(%J$0%&*%6*4+%)#(-%'*$1#*6$(0'*-* 

  >$(0'*-*   
*6   &4-1&$()1:161-*-(<%)'1+1%)#(-%&-%# *#  B

ρ H . # 7 #  / =
- H . # 7 #  /
#  − #
= -
 − -. #  − #  /
-. #  − #  /
- H . # 7 #  / =
 − -. #  − # /

I*'1%)-() ≡ #  − # 0%&46#*&%0δ H .)/ = -C. − - )/ 7>&1) = %&δ H ./ = -C. − -/



  
   
()&1-%0%+(&34%B
 ≡ *6(021)*6('*$1#*6)(+1)*6
#  ≡ %)'1+1%)#(-%6'*$1#*621)*6
 ≡ *6(0*'#4*6 %2%'#1<((-%&'()#*-(
#  ≡ %)'1+1%)#(-%6<*6(0%2%'#1<(()(+1)*6
- ≡ *)#(-%-%&'4%)#(&1+$6%'(+%0'1*6


) = # − # 
"# 
 
  
+$6%*+(&%62*'#(0-%-%&'4%)#(<. #  7 #  / =  − -. #  − #  /B

 
 =   <. #  7 #  / =    − -. #  − #  / =    − - )  
"# 
 
  

) =  −  -
 =    − - ) ⇒ 
 - 
- =  − 


 ) 


 
 
)%6&1&#%+*-%-%&'4%)#(&1+$6%'(+%0'1*6 
 
       
 
 
$$(0#*)#(6*'*)#1-*-  -%&'()#*-*%&B
 =  −  =  −  . − - )/ =   - )


    
 
 
%%+$6%*)$*0*'*6'46*0%6

  
  
    
%
 !


 .0%+%&*&&
  
   

 

1%)-(       6(&<*6(0%&)(+1)*6%&-%6(&-1&#1)#(&%2%'#(&'(+%0'1*6%&> # #     # &4&0%&$%'#1A
<(&<%)'1+1%)#(&%&B


  #  
 = ∑  = ∑   - = -  ∑   #  = 1  ∑ 
 =  =  C   C   =  C   =
  #  ≡  = )K+%0('(+%0'1*6

-



'   
 %
?*'1%)-( = %&B  =  ∑  
 C   =


 %
?*'1%)-( =  C  %&B  =   ∑  
-  =

! "

 
 
<%'%&%)4)1)&#*)#%# = &%$*'#*   
%
 
 
 

 
. 7 #/ 7 .  7 #  / 7  7 .  7 # /
$(0 4) (

 . 7 D/  34% &%9K) 6* 6%> -% -%&'4%)#( &1+$6% '(+%0'1*6 &%* 21)*)'1%0*+%)#% %341<*A
6%)#%*6(&%2%'#(&34%&4&#1#4>%*<*6(0*'1@)-%6(&%&(&'*$1#*6%&-%:%&%0%61)&#*)#%-%6$*'#(
6%J191034%6*$0(>%''1@)21)*)'1%0*-%. 7 D/ %)%61)&#*)#% # =  -%6$*'#('(1)'1-*'()6*&4+*-%6*&0%&A
$%'#1<*&$0(>%''1()%&21)*)'1%0*&-%. 7 # /  .  7 #  /   .  7 #  / %)-1'?(1)&#*)#%0%&46#*B

. − - D/ =

∑  . − - #  / ./
 =
   

1  34% = ∑

 6*%'4*'1@)./&%'()<1%0#%%)
 =
 ∑
. − - D/ = ∑ . − - # /
  =   =
 

(0#*)#(B
 ∑
−  ∑ . − - # /
  #
  =    =  
∑  
≡ 
+%-1**01#+5#1'*-%6(&<%)'1+1%)#(&# 


'()6*&'4*)#=*&-%6(&'*$1#*6%&
 =
D=

=
 $()-%0*-(&
- ∑  ∑ 
 =  =
(+( %6 <*6(0 -% ,D, )( -%$%)-% -%6 #1$( -% 1)#%05& ,1, $(-%+(& %J$0%&*0 %6 #1%+$( %) 6*& 4)1-*-%& 34%
34%0*+(&.-=*&+%&%&%#'/
  

1
  34% = ∑  6(&<*6(0%&-%, ,>,D,-%$%)-%)4)(-%(#0(


 =

− ∑  . − - #  /
1 %  
  "-%./&%-%-4'%34%BD =  =
-

∑  . − - #  /
1 %  
-%./&%-%-4'%34% =  =  
 − - D


#  
 
 
 <%'%& %) 4) 1)&#*)#% # =  &% $6*)#%*     (

 . 7 #/  
  
%
 

. 7 #/   .  7 #  /  34% &%9K) 6* 6%> -% -%&'4%)#( &1+$6% '(+%0'1*6 &%* 21)*)'1%0*+%)#% %341<*6%)#% *6
%2%'#(. 7 #/ 34%&4&#1#4>%10%&#01)91+(&%6$0(:6%+**6'*&(-%-(&%2%'#(&. 7 #/ >.  7 #  / '()&1-%0*)A
-(34%  +  = *6%J191034%6*$0(>%''1@)21)*)'1%0*-%. 7 # / %)%61)&#*)#% # =  '(1)'1-*'()6*&4+*
-%6*&0%&$%'#1<*&$0(>%''1()%&21)*)'1%0*&-%. 7 #/>.  7 #  / %)-1'?(1)&#*)#%0%&46#*B


. − - #/ = . − - #/ +  . − - #  / ⇒ −  - # =  −  - # +  −   - #  ⇒
⇒  # =  # +   # 
(0#*)#(6(&<*6(0%&-% >  '(00%&$()-%)*6*&(64'1@)-%6&1&#%+*-%%'4*'1()%&B



  # +  # =  # 
  +  =
$  
 
<%'%&%)4)1)&#*)#% # = >-*-(4)'*$1#*621)*)'1%0(. 7 D/ &%$6*)#%*   4)*'4*)#=* *61)&A
#*)#%#  >  


6*'4*)#=*0%&#*)#%  = − ?*&#*4)1)&#*)#%#  $(&#%01(0*,D,

 
#


D
0@00(9*

6%J191034%6*$0(>%''1@)21)*)'1%0*-% . 7 D/ %)%61)&#*)#% # =  '(1)'1-*'()6*&4+*-%6*&0%&$%'#1<*&


$0(>%''1()%&21)*)'1%0*&-%. 7 #  />.  7 #  / %)-1'?(1)&#*)#%0%&46#*B

. − - # / +  . − - #  / = . − - D/ ⇒

#

⇒  −  - #  +  −   - #  = −  - D ⇒  #  +   #  =  D ⇒
 +  =
 D −  #   D −  # 

⇒ # = ⇒ 0 @00(9* ≡ . #  − D/ = −D
 


   
 
6%91-**$01(014)*6%>-%'*$1#*61D*'1@)&1+$6%,,'()#*)#(,1,6*6%>
21)*)'1%0* -% 
   
  $(&#46* 34% %6 <*6(0 *'#4*6

.<*6(0 %2%'#1<( ( <*6(0 -%&'()#*-(/ . 7 #7 $/ -%6 '*$1#*6 . 7 #/  %) %6
+ 1. # − $/
$4)#( -% <*6(0*'1@) ,$, .$ < #/  %& *34%66* 34% '*$1#*61D*-* '() 6* 6%> 


,,-%&-%%61)&#*)#%,$,*61)&#*)#%,#,$0(-4'%4)+()#*)#%, ,7(&%*
6* '*)#1-*- -%&'()#*-* . 7 #7 $/ '(1)'1-% '() 6(& 1)#%0%&%& 34%
$#
$0(-4'10=*%6+()#*)#% . 7 #7 $/ '*$1#*61D*-(-%&-%,$,?*&#*,#,'()6*
%&'()#*+(&, ,
6%>,,&=?*-%&%0. 7 #7 $/.+ 1. # − $// = 7$(0#*)#(B

. 7 #7 $/ =
 + 1. # − $/ .)/ = C. + 1 )/
 1. # − $/
= − . 7 #7 $/ = − = 
 + 1. # − $/  + 1. # − $/


 1 )
1 =  %& .7 #7 $/ ≡ . #7 $/ = C. + 1. # − $//   > '(+( %6 <*6(0 + 1 )
-% . #7 $/ &@6(-%$%)-%-%6**+$61#4- , # − $, -%61)#%0<*6(.$ 7 #/
&1-%)(#*+(&,),-1'?**+$61#4-.(&%* ) ≡ # − $ > /$(-%+(& C. + 1 )/
%&'01:10 .)/ = C. + 1 )/ 34%%&6*'4*)#=*-%6'*$1#*621)*)'1%0(
%341<*6%)#%(&4&#1#4#(-%6'*$1#*6 .7 #/ %) %6 1)&#*)#% -% <*6(0*A
'1@)&1#4*-(,),4)1-*-%&-%#1%+$(*6* -%,#,&1%)-( )

= 1 )  → ∞
61+ .)/ = 61+
→ ∞  + 1 )
=
 + 1 )


   
    
*6%>  -%

 *6#*)#(,-,$(&#46*34%  .)/ =  − - ) >6*6%>   -%
 
!
 *6#*)#(,1,$(&#46*34%  .)/ = C. + 1 )/7 *&=&1- = 10%&46#*B

 .)/ −   .)/ = . − 1 )/ −  = − 1   )  <  ⇒  .)/ <  .)/


 
 + 1 )  + 1 )


(+( <%+(& &1 - = 1 %6 +()#*)#% .)/ =  − 1 )  (:#%)1-( '() %6 -%&'4%)#( '(+%0'1*6 %& +%)(0 34% %6
  .)/ = C. + 1 )/ (:#%)1-('()%6-%&'4%)#(0*'1()*6>$(0%&(6(&:*)'(&%+$6%*)%6-%&'4%)#('(+%0'1*6



  .)/   .)/
.)/

.)/
) C1

     


    

$0(-4D'*)%6+1&+(+()#*)#%0%&46#*B
 
(+( &*:%+(& 6* 6%>   -% -%&'4%)#( '(+%0'1*6 *6 #*)#( ,-,
$(&#46* 34%  .)/ =  − - )  > 6* 6%>    -% -%&'4%)#( 0*'1()*6 *6
#*)#( ,1, $(&#46* 34%   .)/ = C. + 1 )/7  *6 %J1910 34% *+:*& 6%>%&

- = 1
C. + 1 )/
− - )




⇒
  + 1 )
 .)/ =   .)/ ⇒  − - ) =
 + 1 ) 1 =  −-- ) )


  
 
6    


$(&#46* 34% 6* '4*)#=* -%&'()#*-* %) '*-* 

 
 -%
#1%+$(&%0%&#**6'*$1#*6*-%&'()#*0$*0*%)$%01(-(&&4'%&1<(&-%&'()#*0&(:0%%6'*$1#*6>*-%&'()#*A
-(
)
 %
&1-%&'4%)#*&-%2(0+*'(+$4%&#*;34%<%)'%)-%)#0(-%*L(&> - = M%&6*'*)#1A
-*- -%&'()#*-* $(0 '*-* %40( %) 4)* 4)1-*- -% #1%+$( .4) *L(/ %6 '*$1#*6 . 7  /  %& %341<*6%)#% *6


." 7 / 7%&-%'10$*9*&;$(0*-%6*)#*04)*L(%6<%)'1+1%)#(-%6'*$1#*6 . 7 / 6'*$1#*6 ." 7 /


%&%341<*6%)#%*6.! 7 / 7%&-%'10$*9*&";.%6N-%"/$(0*-%6*)#*04)*L(%6<%)'1+1%)#(-%6'*A
$1#*6 ." 7 /   > %6 '*$1#*6 .! 7 /  %& %341<*6%)#% *6 ." 7 / 7 %& -%'10 $*9*& ! ; .%6 N -% !/ $(0
*-%6*)#*04)*L(%6<%)'1+1%)#(-%6'*$1#*6.! 7 / 
)9%)%0*6&1,-,%&6*'*)#1-*--%&'()#*-*$(0'*-*4)1-*-+()%#*01*%)
4)* 4)1-*- -% #1%+$( 6* $0(>%''1@) 21)*)'1%0* . 7 #7 $/  -%6 '*$1#*6 . 7 #/
%)%6$4)#(-%<*6(0*'1@),$,.$ < #/ %&B .− -/


   =  
−   − 


$#
 7 # ≈  . − -/7 # −  ≈  . − -/ 7 # −  ≈  ≈  . − -/
− 7$ %&'()#*+(&, ,

%)(#*)-(,),*6**+$61#4- , # − $, -%61)#%0<*6(.$7 #/ $(-%+(&%&'01:10. 7 )/ = . − -/ 34%%&6*'4*)#=*


-%6'*$1#*621)*)'1%0(%341<*6%)#%(&4&#1#4#(-%6'*$1#*6. 7 # / %)%61)&#*)#%-%<*6(0*'1@)&1#4*-(,),4)1-*-%&
-%#1%+$(*6* -%,#,>&1 = %&.7 )/ = . − -/ 

*:%+(&34%&1,1,%&%61)#%05&$0(-4'1-($(04)*4)1-*-+()%#*01*%)4)*4)1-*--%#1%+$(.+ 1/ %&%6


+()#*)#%(:#%)1-('()6*6%>-%'*$1#*61D*'1@)'(+$4%&#*,,*6'*$1#*61D*04)*4)1-*-+()%#*01*,),4)1-*A

-%&-%#1%+$(7>&1,-,%6-%&'4%)#(0%*61D*-(*4)*4)1-*-+()%#*01*%)4)*4)1-*--%#1%+$(.− -/ %&%6
+()#*)#%(:#%)1-('()6*6%>-%-%&'4%)#(&1+$6% ,, *6 -%&'()#*0 4)* 4)1-*- +()%#*01* ,), 4)1-*-%& -%
#1%+$(&=B
7  ≈ . + 1/ 7) ≈ .. + 1/. − -/ 7/
7  ≈ . − -/ 7 − ) ≈ .. − -/. + 1/ 7 /


(0#*)#(,,>,,&%0E)%341<*6%)#%&&1. − -/. + 1/ = 

    


(& '(+$()%)#%& , , > ,#, -%6 '*$1#*6 21)*)'1%0( . 7 #/  &% 66*+*) +*9)1#4-%& $01+*01*& ( 24)-*+%)#*6%& >



'4*6341%0(#0*+*9)1#4-(:#%)1-*'(+(0%&46#*-(-%($%0*'1()%&'()6*&24)-*+%)#*6%&&%66*+*  
  .)(0+*6+%)#%&%(:#%)-0E)+%-1*)#%0%6*'1()%&-%$0($(0'1()*61-*-%)#0%'*$1#*6%&/
 
 
62*'#(0-%-%&'4%)#(-%61)#%0<*6( . #7 #  / &%-%)(#* <. # 7 #  / >$%0+1#%

'()('%0 %6 '*$1#*6  -1&$()1:6% %) %6 1)&#*)#% #  &1 &% '()('% %6 '*$1#*6
 -1&$()1:6%%)%61)&#*)#%#    = <F # 7 #  G 

 < <F # 7 #  G =
  . − -/
 −


=

 =  . − -/
 −


= . − -/
 −
 < 
#  # 
%&'()#*+(& 

(0#*)#(%&  = <. # 7 #  /  


:&%0<*34% <. # 7 #  / %&6*'4*)#=*(:#%)1-**6   6*-1&$()1:161-*-(
<%)'1+1%)#(-%   
  -%&-% #  * # I*'1%)-( ) ≡ #  − # 0%&46#* <.)/ = . − -/  < 7 > &1
) = %&<./ =  − -

  
 
6 2*'#(0 -% '()#0*-%&'4%)#( -%6 1)#%0<*6( . #7 #  /  &% -%)(#*
< H . # 7 #  /  > $%0+1#% '()('%0 %6 '*$1#*6   -1&$()1:6% %) %6  = < H F # 7 #  G 

1)&#*)#% #  &1&%'()('%%6'*$1#*6 -1&$()1:6%%)%61)&#*)#% # 
*#40*6+%)#%< H . # 7 #  / %&%61)<%0&(-%<. # 7 #  / 

 
< H . # 7 #  / = = = . − -/ −
 −
 > 
 <. # 7 #  / #  # 
*$1#*61D*+(& 
<. # 7 #  / = . − -/
 −



(0#*)#(%&  = < H . # 7 #  / 


:&%0<*34% < H . #7 #  / %&6*'4*)#=*(:#%)1-**6   6*-1&$()1:161-*-
(<%)'1+1%)#(-%   
  -%&-%# *#  
I*'1%)-() ≡ #  − # 0%&46#*< H .)/ = . − -/ − > 7 >&1) = %&< H ./ = C. − -/

 
 
605-1#(-%-%&'4%)#(-%61)#%0<*6( . #7 #  / &%-%)(#* -. # 7 #  / >%&%6'(+$6%+%)#(*-%62*'#(0-%-%&A
'4%)#(
-. #7 #  / =  − <. #7 #  / =  − . − -/
 −



<. #7 #  / = . − -/
 −






-. # 7 #  / %&6*-1&+1)4'1@)-%'*$1#*6$(0'*-*  
  34%   &4-1&$()1:1A
61-*-(<%)'1+1%)#(-%&-%#  *# B
 −  . − -/
 −

-. #7 #  / = = −  = −  =  − . − -/
 −
 =  − <. #7 #  /
  
 =  . − -/
 −
  <. #7 #  / = . − -/
 −

I*'1%)-() ≡ #  − # '(+(<.)/ = . − -/  0%&46#*&%0-.)/ =  − <.)/ =  − . − -/ 7>&1) = %&-./ = -

  
 
6 05-1#( -% '()#0*-%&'4%)#( -%6 1)#%0<*6( . #7 #  /  &% -%)(#* - H . # 7 #  /  > %& %6 %J'%&( &(:0% 6* 4)1-*- -%6
2*'#(0-%'()#0*-%&'4%)#(B
- H . #7 #  / = < H . #7 #  / −  = . − -/ −
 −
 − 

< H . #7 #  / = . − -/ −
 −







 - H . #7 #  / %&%6*4+%)#(-%'*$1#*6$(0'*-*  
  34%  &4-1&$()1:161A
-*-(<%)'1+1%)#(-%&-%#*#  B
 −   
- H . #7 #  / = = − = −  = . − -/ −
 −
 −  = < H . #7 #  / − 
   . − -/
 −




 =  . − -/
 −
  < H . #7 #  / = . − -/ −
 −

I*'1%)-() ≡ #  − # '(+(< H .)/ = . − -/ −  %&- H .)/ = < H .)/ −  = . − -/ − − 
1) = %&- H ./ = -C. − -/

   
 
6 #*)#( (0-1)*01( -% -%&'4%)#( -%6 1)#%0<*6( . #7 #  /  &% -%)(#* δ. # 7 #  / > %& %6 '('1%)#% %)#0% %6 05-1#( -%
-%&'4%)#(>6**+$61#4--%61)#%0<*6(7$(0#*)#(%J$0%&*6*-1&+1)4'1@)-%'*$1#*6$(0'*-*  
 !

δ. # 7 #  / =

I*'1%)-() ≡ #  − # 0%&46#*&%0δ.)/ =
 #  − #

)

 >$(0'*-*   
*6   &4-1&$()1:161-*-(<%)'1+1%)#(-%&-%#  *# B
-. # 7 #  /  − . − -/
 −

=


#  − #
-. # 7 #  / =  − . − -/
 −

 − . − -/ 

    


 
6#*)#((0-1)*01(-%'()#0*-%&'4%)#(-%61)#%0<*6(. #7 #  / &%-%)(#* δ H . # 7 #  / >%&%6'('1%)#%%)#0%%605A
-1#(-%'()#0*-%&'4%)#(>6**+$61#4--%61)#%0<*6(7$(0#*)#(%J$0%&*%6*4+%)#(-%'*$1#*6$(0'*-* 

  >$(0'*-*   
*6   &4-1&$()1:161-*-(<%)'1+1%)#(-%&-%# *#  B


- H . # 7 #  / . − -/ −
 −
 − 
ρ H . # 7 #  / = =
#  − # #  − #
- H . # 7 #  / = . − -/ −
 −
 − 
. − -/ − − 
I*'1%)-() ≡ #  − # 0%&46#*&%0δ H .)/ = − 7>&1) = %&δ H ./ = -C. − -/
)


  
   
()&1-%0%+(&34%B
 ≡ *6(021)*6('*$1#*6)(+1)*6
#  ≡ %)'1+1%)#(-%6'*$1#*621)*6
 ≡ *6(0*'#4*6 %2%'#1<((-%&'()#*-(
#  ≡ %)'1+1%)#(-%6<*6(0%2%'#1<(()(+1)*6
- ≡ *)#(-%-%&'4%)#('(+$4%&#(
) = # − # 


"# 
 
  
+$6%*+(&%62*'#(0-%-%&'4%)#(<. #  7 #  / = . − -/
 −
 B

 
  =          =    − 
 −
 =     −  
"# 
 
  

) = )  − ) 
 =    − - ⇒   ) . − -/
- =  − .  C  / 



 
 
)%6&1&#%+*-%-%&'4%)#(&1+$6%'(+$4%&#( 
 
       
 

 
$$(0#*)#(6*'*)#1-*-  -%&'()#*-*%&
 =   −   =   −    −   =     −  −   
 "

 
 


<%'%&%)4)1)&#*)#% # = &%$*'#*    
%
 
 
  . 7 #/  .  7 #  /
$(0  (

. 7 D/ 34%&%9K)6* 6%> -% -%&'4%)#( '(+$4%&#( &%* 21)*)'1%0*+%)#% %341<*6%)#% *
6(&%2%'#(&34%&4&#1#4>%*<*6(0*'1@)-%6(&%&(&'*$1#*6%&-%:%&%0%61)&#*)#%-%6$*'#(
6%J191034%6*$0(>%''1@)21)*)'1%0*-%. 7 D/ %)%6 # =  '(1)'1-*'()6*&4+*-%6*&0%&$%'#1<*&$0(>%''1(A



)%&21)*)'1%0*&-%. 7 #/  .  7 # / %)-1'?(1)&#*)#%0%&46#*B

. − -/  = ∑  . − -/
 ./
 =
*


  ∑
. − -/  = ∑ . − -/
 7$(0#*)#(B
1  34% = ∑
 =
 6*%'4*'1@)./&%'()<1%0#%%)   =   =





) ∑  . − -/
 − ) ∑ 
  =   =
*

(

1
  34% =


 =
D=

 ) . − -/

 6(&<*6(0%&-%, ,>,D,-%$%)-%)4)(-%(#0(

  ∑ . − -/

− )
C) . − -/
   = 
1 %  
  "-%./&%-%-4'%34%D = )




1 %  


-%./&%-%-4'%34% = ∑  . − -/
 C. − -/  
  =


!  
 
 
 <%'%& %) 4) 1)&#*)#% # =  &% $6*)#%*     (

 . 7 #/  
  
%
 

. 7 #/   .  7 #  /  34% &%9K) 6* 6%> -% -%&'4%)#( '(+$4%&#( &%* 21)*)'1%0*+%)#% %341<*6%)#% *6 %2%'#(
. 7 #/ 34%&4&#1#4>%10%&#01)91+(&%6$0(:6%+**6'*&(-%-(&%2%'#(&. 7 #/ >.  7 #  / '()&1-%0*)-(34%
 +  = *6%J191034%6*$0(>%''1@)21)*)'1%0*-%. 7 D/ %) # =  '(1)'1-*'()6*&4+*-%6*&0%&$%'#1<*&
$0(>%''1()%& 21)*)'1%0*& -% . 7 #/>.  7 #  /  %) # =   0%&46#* . − -/
 +  . − -/
 = . − -/   (0


#*)#(6(&<*6(0%&-% >  '(00%&$()-%)*6*&(64'1@)-%6&1941%)#%&1&#%+*-%%'4*'1()%&B


 . − -/
 +  . − -/
 = . − -/  7  +  = 

#  
 
<%'%&%)4)1)&#*)#% # = >-*-(4)'*$1#*621)*)'1%0(. 7 D/ &%$6*)#%*    4)*'4*)#=* *61)&A
#*)#%#  >  


6*'4*)#=*0%&#*)#%  = − ?*&#*4)1)&#*)#%#  $(&#%01(0*,D,

  


# D #
0@00(9*

6%J191034%6*$0(>%''1@)21)*)'1%0*-% . 7 D/ %)%61)&#*)#% # =  '(1)'1-*'()6*&4+*-%6*&0%&$%'#1<*&


$0(>%''1()%&21)*)'1%0*&-%. 7 #/>.  7 #  / %)-1'?(1)&#*)#%0%&46#*B
. − -/
 +  . − -/
 = . − -/ 

:#%)1-(%6<*6(0-%#  *$*0#10-%6*%'4*'1@)*)#%01(06*
%&#  − D 

También podría gustarte