Running head: APPLICATIONS OF THEORY 1

Applications of Theory in Communication

Allison Miller

Bryant University
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The intricacies of communication, the study of the confounding process by which individuals

come to understand one another and their own reality, is difficult to capture in a single,

comprehensive definition. The general study of communication is not easily defined and includes

a breadth of sub-focuses, such as interpersonal, mass, health, political, instructional, and

organizational communication, among others. As a result, scholars have yet to designate or

identify a unifying theory to utilize as a conceptual framework for communication research. This

process is made further complicated by the fact that communication borrows heavily from other

disciplines, such as psychology and sociology. While there is not a unifying theory that captures

the essence of communication research, many theories – both in and outside the discipline – can

be applied to explain happenings in the subfields of communication. This analysis will explore

two theories, attribution theory (a psychology theory) and constructivism (a communication

theory), their applications to the general understanding of communication, and the specific ways

in which researchers have been able to further apply those theories to two specific areas of study

– interpersonal and mass communication. Further discussion will focus on the prospect and

implications of developing a universal conceptual framework that defines communication

research.

Attribution Theory

Most commonly researched within the field of psychology, attribution theory seeks to

understand how and why people explain events in their everyday lives (Manusov & Spitzberg,

2008). As inherently curious beings, people constantly aim to make sense of their world by

assigning meaning to how and why things occur. This self-imposed process of constantly asking

and answering "why" questions is understood by a family of theories, collectively known as

attribution theory (Manusov & Spitzberg, 2008). Fritz Heider, who is credited as the originator
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of attribution theory, likens those engaged in attribution processes to amateur scientists, working

in a systematic fashion to make sense of their social world (Manusov & Spitzberg, 2008).

According to Manusov and Spitzberg (2008), Heider was particularly interested in causal

locus, or understanding when a person is more likely to assign internal or external cause to a

behavior. Heider's original attribution possibilities have been expanded upon to include stability

(whether or not the cause of a behavior is interpreted as stable or unstable) and control (whether

or not the cause could have been altered by the person in question) (Manusov & Spitzberg,

2008).

Though Heider is often credited with creating attribution theory, as he wrote the inaugural

source of attribution study with his 1958, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, he was not

the first person to touch on the topic in his research, and he certainly was not the last (Weiner,

2008). Harold Kelley, a theorist on interpersonal relations, wrote a 1960 review of Heider's book,

which was the first introduction to attribution study for many audiences (Weiner, 2008).

Ultimately, it was perhaps the work, Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior (1972), by

professors at UCLA, Ned Jones, David Kanouse, Harold Kelley, Richard Nisbett, Stuart Valins,

and Bernard Weiner, that brought attribution research to social psychology research prominence

(Weiner, 2008).

There is heavy debate regarding what exactly led to the prominence of attribution theory, but

a useful and widely endorsed metaphor is as follows: "Heider provided the initial spark, Jones

and Kelly brought the kindling wood, and that started the fire” (Weiner, 2008, p. 154). The

aforementioned pieces are merely seminal works on attribution theory, and the topic has

continually been a prominent research focus, with far too many works to address in this review.

The abundance of research in attribution theory perhaps makes the term attribution theory
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misleading, as it might instead be considered a field of study rather than a singular theory

(Weiner, 2008).

In addition to capturing the attention of social psychology researchers over the last six

decades, attribution is a focus for many communication scholars. Attributions are a basic feature

of interactions, as "any communication event or behavior can be viewed as an effect that has

some cause, and the cause we attribute is likely to influence the meaning of the action and how

we might respond to it” (Manusov & Spitzberg, 2008, p. 38). At its most basic level,

communication may be understood as a process (dynamic, continuous, and on-going) that is

transactional (in that individuals are sources and receivers in interactions) and symbolic (in

which symbols hold an arbitrary relationship to the symbolized object) (Miller, 2002). By this

understanding of communication, attribution theory may be applied to each aforementioned

facet. The continuous nature of the communication process implies that throughout an interaction

attributions will play an impactful role in shaping the meaning of the conversation. Those

meanings impact the transactional nature of communication for both senders and receivers.

Further, attributions may shape the symbolic meaning of interactions. Though this theory is

based in psychology, it aids in understanding the mental and communicative processes that

define our social interactions (Manusov & Spitzberg, 2008).

Attribution theory in interpersonal communication. Attribution theory is readily linked to

the study of interpersonal communication; understanding attributions in interpersonal encounters

has been a strong focus of communication research over the last two decades (Manusov &

Spitzberg, 2008). The central theme of attribution theory is that causal analysis is crucial to an

individuals’ understanding of social events. As such, attribution theory lends itself well to
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understanding how individuals evaluate their interpersonal relationships, interactions, and

subsequent communication behaviors.

People are systematic in their attributions, which influence their behaviors and attitudes.

Attributions about causality influence beliefs of responsibility; as such a rational person would

not to hold someone responsible for a behavior they believe the person did not cause.

Researchers use attribution theory to understand the interpersonal communication that happens

between family caregivers and their relatives with Alzheimer's Dementia (Polk, 2005).

Particularly, there is interest in whether or not negative behaviors are attributed to personality

traits (attributed as controllable) or aging and Alzheimer's Dementia processes (attributed as

uncontrollable), and the impact those attributions have on the manner in which individuals

communicate with a person with Alzheimer’s Dementia (Polk, 2005).

This research was based on foundational research in beliefs of intellectually disabled adults,

where negative caregiver reactions are related to those with mild disability, and less negative

reactions are related to those with severe disability; those who are deemed less responsible for

their situation and actions are regarded with more understanding and sympathy in interactions

(Polk, 2005). The research on those with Alzheimer’s Dementia indicates that beliefs about

behavior controllability are associated with caregiver criticism, hostility, and rejection, while

beliefs of uncontrollability are linked to warmth, enjoyment, and appreciation (Polk, 2005).

Though useful in analyzing the interactions of average and more commonplace interpersonal

relationships, attribution theory is crucially important to communication scholars’ understanding

of more complex relationships, like those of caregivers and their loved ones, who do not

necessarily fit the mold of more traditional interpersonal relationships.

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Attribution theory in mass communication. In addition to benefitting the study of

interpersonal communication, attribution theory can be applied to mass communication.

Attribution theory is a particularly useful framework in understanding crisis communication

research. In one study, public relations specialists used attribution theory to understand how the

public would respond to a corporation that caused an accidental oil spill (Jeong, 2009). In this

situation, the oil spill should be considered the communication event or behavior, where

attributions would be made about the company involved with the event or behavior. When the

corporation involved had performed poorly in other situations, people made unfavorable

attributions, believing in the company bore internal responsibility for the oil spill, leading to an

unfavorable relationship with company (Jeong, 2009). When the corporation in question had

previously performed well in other contexts, people were more likely to make favorable

attributions, believing in external responsibility for the accident (Jeong, 2009). This research

illustrates that attributions are not limited to interpersonal encounters; attributions can in fact

influence an individual’s feelings towards and relationship with entire organizations and

institutions.

Future Implications of Attribution Theory

Recent research in attribution theory provides useful implications in understanding the

direction for future research over the next decade. Attribution theory provides a useful

framework in understanding online relationships, an important focus of communication that has

and will become increasingly prevalent over the years. A 2010 study examined possibilities for

establishing trust in online relationships when face-to-face communication is not available or

involved (Bekmeier-Feuerhahn & Eichenlaub, 2010). These researchers applied attribution

theory to understanding how one’s attribution of a person's similarity or dissimilarity to oneself

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influences the development of trust and relationships. This research indicates that similarity in

language use creates perceptions of similarity, increasing trustworthiness as an attribute of that

person (Bekmeier-Feuerhahn & Eichenlaub, 2010).

In addition to providing insight into interpersonal online relationships, this is useful

information for companies that employ online services and direct advertising to potential

customers. As the research indicates, positive attributions are made as a result of perceived

similarity – as such, companies should be increasingly interested in studying the effects that

personalized campaigns have on customer engagement. As established, attribution theory

extends beyond interpersonal communication to influence mass communication. For instance,

research supports that when individuals process a company’s website by examining information

and quality, they make cognitive attributions about that website (Bui, Jeng, & Lin, 2015).

Customer satisfaction, loyalty, and belonging are all directly associated to the attributions that

people make about the company, which are often based on their website interactions (Bui et al.,

2015). This information provides important implications for companies, which may not realize

the impact that a person’s attributions have on their success. The importance of monitoring and

managing online communication should be underscored by the research on mass communication

and attribution theory.

A 1980 study actually asked the question "are attributional processes evoked by the context

in which an advertisement appears" – the answer to this question was overwhelmingly yes

(Sparkman & Locander). In this approach, the appropriate way to apply attributions is to

consider advertisements as the behavioral event in question, to which a person may be able to

make attributions about the product and the company. With Sparkman and Locander (1980)

having established the applicability of attribution theory to examining advertisements and

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considerations about how those attributions could impact company success, research should

progress in examining attribution theory through this mass communication perspective.

As advertisements become increasingly targeted, research should continue to use the

attribution theory framework to understand the impact and effectiveness of such advertisements.

Perhaps, examining how targeted, personalized advertisements impact people provides a viable

opportunity to shrink the intellectual distance that has traditionally existed between mass and

interpersonal communication. Consider how platforms like Facebook have access to users’

location, age, gender, school, relationship status, political affiliation, interests, and browsing

history, all pieces of information which are then used to plant targeted, relevant advertisements

in users' newsfeeds (Dewey, 2016). A fascinating effect exists in which mass communication

poses as interpersonal communication – working in tandem to reach potential consumers.

Companies’ media and communication, which would have traditionally been studied using a

mass communication perspective, are using interpersonal tactics to influence audiences. In

addition to providing an interesting basis for future study in attribution theory, studying the

effects of targeted advertisements offers an opportunity to marry the studies of interpersonal and

mass communication.

Constructivism

Constructivism is a communication theory that attempts to understand the differences in

individuals' abilities to communicate successfully (Burleson, 2007). This theory views

communication as a skill, lending understanding to how individuals may perceive events and

people differently based on their effectiveness in use of communication. According to this

theory, skilled communication involves three processes: social perception (essentially being

clued in to what is happening in the social world), message production (the ability to use
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messages to effectively accomplish goals), and message reception (the ability to comprehend,

decode, and understand the meaning of others' messages) (Burleson, 2007). This theory aids in

understanding why there are differences in individuals' skills with the aforementioned factors

and the origin of those differences, which aid in allowing some people to be more effective

communicators than others (Burleson, 2007).

Constructivism was originally developed by scholars at the University of Illinois, who

sought to understand how peoples’ perceptions of their social world influenced their

communication tendencies (Burleson, 2007). Jesse Delia, Daniel O'Keefe, and Barbara O'Keefe

developed this idea based on the notion that effective communication is dependent on one's

ability to understand the perspective of others (Burleson, 2007). Though Delia, O’Keefe, and

O’Keefe receive the credit for introducing this theory, other associates, like Brant Burleson,

contributed to the theory’s development (Burleson, 2007). This theory posits that communication

is a skill that is used to reach social goals. The interest of these scholars was to understand how

differences in perceptions are related to more or less effective uses of communication (Burleson,

2007). Ultimately, this is a theory concerning communicative skill, though in the years since the

theory's introduction to the discipline, it has been adjusted and applied to scholarship in cultural

communication, socialization processes, communication in different industries, and interpersonal

communication and mass communication, as illustrated in the following sections.

Constructivism in interpersonal communication. Applications of constructivism include

analyses of how communication skills impact interpersonal attraction and relationship

development. Generally, research indicates that people are interpersonally attracted to and likely

to form friendships with those whose social skills are similar to their own. Studies of established

friendships often reveal that friends have similar social skills, as well as similar tendencies in
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their expression and management of emotional states (Burleson & Samter, 1996). The exact level

of communication skill does not impact friendships so long as the pair of friends have similar

skill sets; as such friends with low levels of communication skills are just as satisfied in their

friendships as those friendship pairs with high levels of communication skill (Burleson &

Samter, 1996). Studies indicate that even in childhood, individuals are more likely to form

friendships with peers with communicative skills that are similar to their own (Burleson, 1994).

Burleson (1982) has also conducted analyses on the effects of age, sex, and situations on

communication skill. In the study, males and females in their childhood and adolescence

(representing grades one through twelve) were presented with hypothetical situations and asked

to disclose anything they might communicate to help a distressed friend (Burleson, 1982).

Burleson's (1982) research indicates that variety in messages, sensitivity, and skillful

communication increases proportionally with age. Additionally, across ages, females are more

likely to employ a greater number of, variety in, and overall more sensitive messages than their

male counterparts (Burleson, 1982).

Constructivism in mass communication. An interesting application of constructivism in

mass communication involves consideration of how media consumption impacts communication

competence and skill. Specifically, this involves consideration of the impact para-social

relationships have on individuals' communication skills and abilities. Constructivism posits that

the more interpersonal constructs a person has, the more likely it is that they will have a high

level of interpersonal cognitive complexity (Burleson, 2007). In other words, more interactions

and relationships benefit an individual’s communication competence and skill by giving them

more experiences to learn and draw from in future interactions. This constructivist focus is on

interpersonal relationships, which is why it is interesting to consider effects of para-social

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relationships, which exist in the realm of mass communication. In modern mass media – which

includes television, movies and general celebrity – there is an illusion for some audience

members that they have an interpersonal relationship with the actor or performer (Horton &

Wohl, 1956). The seemingly face-to-face relationship, which is in reality one-sided on the part of

the audience, is known as a para-social relationship (Horton & Wohl, 1956).

Research indicates that loneliness, the negative feeling that happens in result of feeling

incongruence between one’s social network needs and social network fulfillment, is negatively

associated with interpersonal decoding skills and communication competence (Wang, Fink, &

Cai, 2008). As such, it is speculated that while loneliness derives from interpersonal needs, it

may stem from hesitation to interact interpersonally because past experiences may have led

lonelier people to believe that interpersonal channels are ineffective (Wang et al., 2008). To fulfil

these needs and reduce negative feelings associated with loneliness, many lonely people utilize

mass media (Wang et al., 2008).

Notably, the research on this topic is historically complicated, as lack of communication

competence is linked to loneliness, “loneliness correlates with media reliance, media reliance

correlates with the amount of para-social interaction, but loneliness has not been found to be

associated with para-social interaction” (Wang et al., 2008, p. 89). Wang and colleagues' (2008)

research bridges this gap, by exploring the relationship between types of loneliness, gender, and

para-social dependence. For instance, the research illustrates that for women, loneliness related

to a lack of family interaction is correlated with using para-social interaction as an alternative to

fulfil communication needs (Wang et al., 2008). It may be beneficial for further study to explore

the para-social interaction that exists between audiences and social media personalities, with that

brand of celebrity growing more prevalent. This research might consider how communication
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competence relates to para-social interaction with social media celebrities, as research illustrates

that those with less communication competence may be more dependent on their para-social

relationships. Additional opportunities for future research in constructivism are further discussed

in the next portion of the literature.

Future Implications of Constructivism

Interpersonal research attention has grown to apply aspects of constructivist theory to the

listening process. It is posited that in addition to examining the perception, production, and

reception of messages, constructivist theory should also consider the importance of listening skill

(Burleson, 2011). In this construct, listening is understood as the process of interpreting the

communication of others to help understand the implications and meaning of behavior (Burleson,

2011). Recent research has shed light onto how listening skills translate to reading, particularly

in asynchronous discussions in learning environments, like student online forums. This research

likens listening (or social perception) to reading, and speaking (or message production) to online

post contribution (Wise, Hausknecht, & Zhao, 2014). This research indicates that when students

have access to read and reread posts, they are more likely to produce quality posts (Wise et al.,

2014). This research is indicative of the importance of studying constructivism as it relates to

increasingly asynchronous communication options. Future research should consider how access

to thoroughly read and reread messages may influence an individual’s communication skill.

Social networking is an increasingly relevant feature of interpersonal and mass

communication, also serving as a platform for asynchronous communication. Many factors that

relate to college-aged individuals' depression levels involve social factors, which are ultimately

influenced by communication skill (Wright, Rosenberg, Egbert, Ploeger, Bernard, & King,

2013). While Wright and colleagues’ study sought to understand the relationship between
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Facebook, communication skill, and social support, the research actually prompted more

questions for future research. For instance, the study indicates that students who use Facebook to

pass time more than interpersonal face-to-face communication may be more depressed (Wright

et al., 2013). These authors suggest that future research in constructivism should aim to

understand differences among individuals' preferences in using computer-mediated

communication or face-to-face interaction to achieve social goals (Wright et al., 2013). As social

media grants individuals more channel options for achieving communication goals, future

research in constructivism should engage an understanding of how selection and use of these

options are related to communication skill and ability to successfully reach communication

goals.

Mass communication research utilizing the constructivist approach in the future might

consider the impact of mass communication on the development of communication abilities.

Specifically, a particularly interesting focus would involve examining how television and social

media impact one's social perception and message reception. A 1995 study examined perceived

television reality and related responses from child audiences (Huston, Wright, Alvarez, Truglio,

Fitch, & Piemyat). This research indicates that children experience emotion in response to

characters in documentaries, dramas, and realistic dramas (Huston et al., 1995). In fact, the

perceived factuality of programming in this study did not have great influence on participants’

emotional responses (Huston et al., 1995). The children in this study additionally made

inferences about how interpersonal situations played out beyond the content they witnessed.

Regardless of the perceived reality of the program, children were able to describe the characters'

psychological states and related potential communication outcomes (Huston et al., 1995). This

line of research, which includes Huston and colleagues’ (1995) study in addition to many others,
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actually suggests that television exposure may increase ones' skills related to social perception

and message reception. Other research should draw on studies like Wang and colleagues’ (2008)

to understand not only how communication competence relates to loneliness and therefore para-

social interaction, but also how increased para-social interaction may then in turn impact

communication competence. Future research should utilize constructivism to examine how mass

media exposure may influence audiences' communication skills beyond social perception factors.

The Prospect of a Unifying Theory

As the previous discussion of attribution theory and constructivism illustrates,

communication theories as well as theories that are external to the discipline may be applied to

explain phenomena that occur in both interpersonal and mass communication. What these

theories, and many others do, is endeavor to reduce the intellectual distance between

interpersonal and mass communication by highlighting the common elements that exist between

the two fields of communication study. This applicability of theories between these two focuses

of communication emphasizes the versatility of theories that remain open and conceptual. While

modern phenomena like the internet and social media provide an application for theories to

address mass and interpersonal communication concerns simultaneously, it is likely that the

study of communication in these applications will evolve into its own communication focus – not

unify the entirety of all communication scholarship.

As Miller (2002) reminds us, it is important that as communication scholars, we must not

assume that there exists a single, absolute way to define a concept. This is especially true for the

general study of communication, which has endured endless scrutiny and countless attempts to

be pinned down. As Miller (2002) proposes, the ambiguity associated with the definition of

communication should in fact be considered a good thing; the varying definitions of

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communication allow scholars to approach communication scholarship in innovative ways,

adding to the field in styles that might not be possible with a singular cut and dried method of

defining communication.

Defining communication in itself is difficult, as the field is fragmented with the existence of

many subfields, which include interpersonal and mass communication, as well as health,

political, and instructional, among others. As such, the development of general, overarching

theories of communication is a daunting and perhaps futile task. In his explanation for why so

few communication theories exist, Charles Berger (1992) notes that "communication phenomena

that occur in each [field-specific] context are so unique that context-specific theories are needed

to explain them” (p. 101). So long as the discipline focuses on examining communication within

the realms of specific fields, like interpersonal and mass communication, the chances for

development of general, unifying communication theories are slim. Again, Berger (1992) asserts

that if the development of a unifying theory were to occur, “more likely, these changes will be

evolutionary rather than revolutionary” (p. 112).

More than two decades after Berger first published claims about the fragmentation of the

communication discipline, with its lack of a unifying theory, his words still hold true. While the

communication field is continually bolstered by the development of new approaches to

communication and theories within its sub-disciplines, this further splinters the field – not

leading any closer to the delivery of a single, unifying theory. The tendency for scholars to

specialize within a particular sub-focus of communication, a tendency that is endorsed by the

structure of most communication education programs (Berger, 1992), means it is highly unlikely

that the focus for upcoming communication researchers will be on the development of a single,
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unifying theory that will provide explanation for mass and interpersonal communication, as well

as the other focuses of communication.

While the subliminal message underlying Berger’s answer to Why Are There So Few

Communication Theories? is that the discipline’s lack of any unifying theories is a bad thing, this

pessimistic perspective is perhaps not the right outlook. It is not the theories involved in

communication scholarship that matter, but instead the effects of those theories. By identifying

what effective communication is and using that knowledge to promote well-being,

communication research makes a difference by improving the human condition (Hummert,

2009), which is perhaps the best outcome of research that any academic could hope for.

Whether or not a unifying conceptual framework for the general study of communication

will ever come to fruition remains to be seen – and whether or not that is a good or bad thing is a

matter of opinion. While scholars like Charles Berger see the fractured nature of communication

scholarship as an issue, others like Hummert believe the more important consideration of

communication research is whether or not the research that is done in the field – no matter the

sub-discipline it happens in – makes a meaningful difference in peoples’ lives. It is quite possible

that there will eventually be a unifying theory, but as Berger holds, it is likely that this theory

will evolve over time, and not abruptly appear with the guidance of a single scholar with a

radical, unifying theory. It is most important that communication scholars remain focused on

efforts that could have practical applications, which have potential to meaningfully enhance the

human condition.
APPLICATIONS OF THEORY 17

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