wireless lans can operate in one of two configurations, with a base station and without a base

station Figure a: #The last link with the users is wireless, to give a network connection to all users
in a building or campus. #The backbone network usually uses cables. Figure b:Each user in the
wireless network communicates directly with all others, without a backbone network sometimes
called ad-hoc network. To reduce the packet dropping probability or to enhance throughput of
wireless LAN exponential binary backoff algorithm is widely used To reduce the packet dropping
probability backoff algorithm can be explained with the following steps.Step: 1The transmitting
node first senses the status of the channel. If the channel is found busy then the Tx node continues
to monitor the channel. Step:2If the channel is found idle for a fixed duration know as the Tx
chooses a random number. The random number is used as a back off timer.Step:3Time
immediately after the DIFS (Distributed Inter-frame Space) is slotted. The sum of the time
required to sense a station and to switch the Tx from sensing / listening mode to transmitting
mode.Step:4Elapsing of each idle slot the back off timer is decreased by one. If the channel is
found busy before the back off timer reaches to zero then repeat the steps 1 to 3. The
transmission of data from begins only if the back off timer reaches to zero. Frequency hopping
Frequency hopping is a spread spectrum technique that involves transmitting the signal over a
random sequence of frequencies that is, first transmitting at one frequency, then a second then
a third, and so on. Frequency hopping is useful because @Get an agreeable radio environment.
@Provide a similar communication quality for every user.@Tighter reuse patterns are possible to
be used for larger capacity.@ It is useful to counter eavesdropping @To reduce interference and
avoid interception. Collision Avoidance with RTS-CTS exchange Avoiding collisions:@Sender first
transmits small request-to-send (RTS) packets to BS using CSMA – RTSs may still collide with each
other (but they’re short)@BS broadcasts clear-to-send CTS in response to RTS @CTS heard by all
nodes – Sender transmits data frame – Other stations defer transmissions Uncast: one sends, one
receives Broadcasting: one sends, all receive Multicasting: one sends, a group receives

Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) Protocol LEACH stands for Low Energy
Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy. This is a TDMA based protocol for wireless sensor networks with
homogeneous nodes. LEACH is self-organizing, adaptive clustering protocol. LEACH aims to
distribute energy consumption at every node in the sensor network uniformly, aggregate data.
The diagram below shows the architecture of LEACH. state the gains of spread spectrum system
• Immunity from various noise and multipath distortion– Including jamming•Can hide/encrypt
signals – Only receiver who knows spreading code can retrieve signal •Several users can share
same higher bandwidth with little interference •Drastically reduce BER CDMA is a Direct
Sequence Spread Spectrum system •CDMA is a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum system. The
CDMA system works directly on 64 kbit/sec digital signals.• In CDMA, each bit time is subdivided
into m short intervals called chips. Typically there are 64 or 128 chips per bit. Each station is
assigned a unique m-bit chip sequence. •To transmit a 1 bit, a station sends its chip sequence.
•To transmit a 0 bit, it sends the one's complement of its chipsequence. •No other patterns are
permitted.•Thus for m = 8, if station A is assigned the chip sequence 00011011, it sends a 1 bit by
sending 00011011 and a 0 bit by sending 11100100. DSDV Packet Process Algorithm●If the new
address has a higher sequence number, the node chooses the route with the higher sequence
number and discards the old sequence number.●If the incoming sequence number is identical to
the one belonging to the existing route, a route with the least cost metric is chosen.●All the
metrics chosen from the new routing information are incremented. ●This process continues until
all the nodes are updated. 16-bit Fibonacci LFSR Pseudo-noise sequences:Noise-like wideband
spread-spectrum signals are generated using PN sequence - a PN spreading waveform is a time
function of a PN sequence. -In FH/SS (frequency-hopping spread-spectrum), frequency hopping
patterns can be generated from a PN code. -PN sequences are deterministically generated; - The
time waveform generated from the PN sequences also seem like random noise. It elongates the
symbol period so that the signal is more robust against inter symbol interference caused by
channel dispersions and multipath interference

Symbol period, T = 1/B = 1/10MHz = 0.1 µsDelay spread of channel Td = 2-3 µs Delay spread T =
0.1 µs Td = 2 µs Symbol time << Delay spread. ISI or inter symbol interference. As Bandwidth B
increase symbol time 1/B decrease. Smaller band = sub band = N Principle to overcome ISI:
Example: B= 10 MHz ; N = 1000 N= Number of sub bands. Bandwidth of each sub bands = B/N
= 10 MHz/1000 = 10 KHz. Show the frame format of IEEE 802.11. “The frame control (FC) field
provides information on the type of frame has 11 subfields”.Explain any six of them The IEEE
802.11 addressing mechanism specifies four cases, defined by the value of the two flags in the FC
field, To DS and From DS. Each flag can be either 0 or 1, resulting in four different situations. The
interpretation of the four addresses (address 1 to address 4) in the MAC frame depends on the
value of these flags, as shown in Table below. Ad-hoc networks have several types of
applications”. Explain Five of them. ●Rescue operations. In an emergency public disaster, such
as an earthquake, ad-hoc networks can be set up at a location where no infrastructure is present.
Ad-hoc networks can be used to support network connectivity when no fixed network is
available.●Military. Ad-hoc networks can be used in a battle zone, for a military command and
mobile units.●Law enforcement and security operations. An ad-hoc network can be used in a
temporary security operation, acting as a mobile surveillance network.●Home networks. An ad-
hoc network can be used to support seamless (continuous) connectivity among various
devices.●Conferencing. Ad-hoc networks can be set up for a presentation. An audience can
download a presentation, browse the slides on a portable device, print them on the local printer,
or e-mail the presentation to an absent colleague. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
modulation scheme? Explain Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a multi-carrier modulation scheme that
transmits data over a number of orthogonal subcarriers. ❖CSMA/CD:CSMA/CD is a media access
control (mac) protocol. It defines how network devices respond when two devices attempt to use
a data channel simultaneously. A collision detection mechanism compares the amount of energy
on the media after a packet is transmitted. If the value is greater than the the energy used by the
transmitting device, then a collision has occurred.
Draw the detail GSM Speech Processing Speech Digitizing &source coding-Channel coding-
interleaving Ciphering- Burst Assembly -Modulation –Channel- De-Modulation-Burst disassembly
-De-Ciphering - De-interleaving-Channel Decoding-source decoding Cellular
network●Centralized, all the traffic goes through the Base Station●Circuit Switching●single hop
type●Topology Star●Designed and developed for voice traffic●Higher cost and takes more time
for deployment●Low call drops during mobility due to seamless connectivity across
region●requires periodic maintenance and hence it is costly.Ad Hoc network @Distributed, No
centralized system such as Base station needed @Packet Switching@Multiple hops@Mesh @
Designed to meet best effort data traffic requirements @ Lower cost and does not take more time
for deployment @Higher breaks in the path during mobility @nodes are self organising and hence
it is less costly. Authentication Center To discuss the authentication process we will assume
that the VLR has all the information required to perform that authentication process (Kc, SRES
and RAND). If this information is unavailable, then the VLR would request it from the HLR/AUC. 1.
Triples (Kc, SRES and RAND) are stored at the VLR.2. The VLR sends RAND via the MSC and BSS, to
the MS (unencrypted).3. The MS, using the A3 and A8 algorithms and the parameter Ki stored on
the MS SIM card, together with the received RAND from the VLR, calculates the values of SRES
and Kc. 4. The MS sends SRES unencrypted to the VLR 5. Within the VLR the value of SRES is
compared with the SRES received from the mobile. If the two values match, then the
authentication is successful. 6. If cyphering is to be used, Kc from the assigned triple is passed to
the BTS. 7. The mobile calculates Kc from the RAND and A8 and Ki on the SIM. 8. Using Kc, A5 and
the GSM hyper frame number, encryption between the MS and the BSS can now occur over the
air interface. Draw and describe GSM Architecture The GSM network architecture as defined in
the GSM specifications can be grouped into four main areas:@Mobile station (MS) @Base-Station
Subsystem (BSS) @ Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) @Operation and Support Subsystem
(OSS).. The different elements of the GSM network operate together and the user is not aware of
the different entities within the system. The additional components of the GSM architecture
comprise of databases and messaging systems functions: #Home Location Register (HLR) #Visitor
Location #Register (VLR) #Equipment Identity Register (EIR) #Authentication Center (AuC) #SMS
Serving Center (SMS SC) #Gateway MSC (GMSC) #Chargeback Center (CBC) #Transcoder and
Adaptation Unit (TRAU). DEEPClusteringAlgorithm 1. Initial cluster head finds cluster members
by sending "cluster-head declaration.” 2. Initial cluster head finds new cluster-head candidates by
sending "cluster-head exploration signal.” 3. Repeat: Cluster-head candidates that are placed on
the (dr1, dr2) ring find cluster members. 4. Nodes that receive more than one cluster-head
declaration choose the closest cluster head, based on the received signal energy. 5. Cluster-head
candidates that receive a cluster-head declaration signal negotiate with the sender, and one of
them gets eliminated. 6. Confirmed cluster heads send "cluster-head exploration" signals to find
new cluster-head candidates(Go to step 4). 7. Finalize: If the number of members in a cluster is
less than mn, all the members find new clusters by sending the membership-search signal. 8. At
the end, a node that has not received any control signal sends the membership-search signal.