Lecture Notes h81hmt Heat Transfer Section 2 Convection and Radiation

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Lecture notes, H81HMT: Heat Transfer: Section 2:

Convection and Radiation
Heat and Mass Transfer (University of Nottingham)
Distributing prohibited | Downloaded by mohammed sallem (mohammedsallem77@gmail.com)

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STUDENT NAME: _______________________________

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
MODULE TITLE:
H81HMT:
HEAT TRANSFER:
SECTION 2:
Convection and Radiation
MODULE CONVENOR: Dr. Vernon Collis

Room: Coates-A14

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H81HMT BOOKLET 2 DimAnal Conv and Radn FINAL 2011
Heat Transfer Formulae Sheet
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Useful Symbols and Units:
[Note to Students: Complete the UNITS column]
Symbol Quantity Units
Q rate of heat transfer per unit area
q rate of heat transfer
k thermal conductivity
A area
T1, T2 temperatures
x solid thickness
l tube length
r1, r2 inner and outer tube radii
h heat transfer coefficient
d diameter
 density
u fluid velocity
 dynamic viscosity
cP specific heat capacity
e OR  emissivity
 Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(where:
 = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4 )
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Dimensionless Numbers and Correlations
Note:
Heat Transfer coefficient:
h = q/T (W m-2 K-1)
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SECTION 2A:
CONVECTION
Heat Transfer via CONVECTION:
Convection results from movement of fluid on a macroscopic scale, either by
NATURAL CONVECTION or FORCED CONVECTION in PIPES
In most pipes the circulating fluid currents die out in the vicinity of the surface
and a film of fluid, free of turbulence, covers the surface. In this film, heat
transfer is by conduction and the main resistance to heat transfer lies there.
Increasing the velocity of the fluid over the surface reduces the thickness of this
film and, hence, gives rise to improved heat transfer.
Generally, the film coefficient increases with (fluid velocity)n where 0.6 < n <
0.8.
For convective heat transfer:
Q  hAT
BULK FLUID (TMEAN)
Q
CONVECTIVE LAYER (h)
h (NOT TO SCALE)
SOLID SURFACE (THOT)
Area: A
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Thus, it is necessary to be able to determine h for a given situation.
Many factors affect h including:
viscosity (  ); density (  ); specific heat (cP); thermal conductivity (k);

a surface dimension (l); fluid velocity (u); temperature difference ( T );
and the factor determining natural circulation –
the product of coefficient of expansion (  ) and acceleration due to gravity (g).
We can thus write: q   (u, l ,  ,  , c p , T , g , k )
q = heat transferred per unit area per unit time (J m-2 s-1)
This relationship can only be determined experimentally, but it can be

simplified by the use of DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS.
Determination of these relationships involves DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS and

this will be studied in the next section.
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DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS:
Dimensional Analysis depends on the principle that any equation or relation

between variables must be dimensionally consistent. The dimensions of
physical quantities can be expressed in terms of a number of fundamentals,
usually mass, length and time and sometimes temperature and thermal
energy.
These five fundamental DIMENSIONS can be expressed as:
1. Mass: M
2. Length: L
3. Time: T
4. Temperature: 
5. Thermal Energy: H
Variables can then be expressed in terms of these:
Diameter: d L
Velocity: u LT-1
Density:  ML-3
Viscosity:  ML-1T-1
Pressure: p ML-1T-2
Heat Flow: Q HT-1

HM-1 
1
Specific Heat: c
HL-1T-1 
1
Thermal Conductivity: k
HL-2T-1 
1
Heat Transfer Coefficient: h
Latent Heat: L HM-1
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Example 1: Let’s consider a simple pendulum:
What does its period (T / s) depend on?

length: l
gravity: g
mass: m
Let’s try to make some intelligent engineering guesses:
T / s = f (length (l / m), mass (m / kg), gravity (g / m s-2)) ????
∴ in its simplest form, we may write: T = k la mb gc
re-writing in terms of SI units:
s1 ≡ (m)a (kg)b (m s-2)c
better to use DIMENSIONS:
T1 ≡ (L)a (M)b (L T-2)c
simplifying, we obtain:
T1 ≡ (L)a+c (M)b ( T)-2c
Now equate the powers and solve:
0 = a + c (equ1) 0 = b (equ2) 1 = -2c (equ3)
∴b=0 c = -1/2 and a = 1/2
hence our expression for “T” becomes:

1/2
T=kl m0 g-1/2
i.e. √
where k is constant to be determined via experiment (k = 2 )
We can deduce simply from DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

that the PERIOD of the pendulum bob is independent of its MASS.
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Example 2:
For a fluid in a pipe the pressure drop (p) is a function of a number of

variables:
p = f(d,l,u,,)
The simplest form for this relationship can be written as:
p = C da lb uc d e
For dimensional consistency the dimensions on each side of the equation must
be the same. In terms of DIMENSIONS:
ML-1 T-2 = La Lb (L T-1)c (M L-3)d (M L-1 T-1)e
ML-1 T-2 = Md+e La+b+c-3d-e T-c-e
Thus, equality powers on both sides:
For M: 1 d e
For L:  1  a  b  c  3d  e
For T:  2  c  e
3 equations and 5 unknowns. Three of the unknowns can be eliminated.

Choosing to solve for b and e:
d  1 e (from M equation)
c  2e (from T equation)
Substituting in equation L to obtain a in terms of b and d
-1 = a + b + (2 - e) - 3(1 - e) - e
-1 = a + b – 1 + e
0=a+b+e
∴a=-b-e
Now substituting into the original equation gives:
p = const d be .l b .u 2e . 1e . e
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This can be rearranged into dimensionless groups (i’s) to give:
EITHER
e
P   
b
l
 const.   
 .u d   du 
2
OR
 l b  du 
e
P
  
 .u 2
const . d   
  
 du 
where Reynolds Number is defined by: Re =  
  
Thus the relationship has been simplified.
We have moved from an complex expression containing 6 physical variables

to a simplified equation involving just 3 dimensionless groups.
Practical measurements may now be undertaken to determine empirical values

for the unknown constants and indices.
[Note: If indices other than b or e had been initially chosen then a different set
of dimensionless groups would emerge.]
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Buckingham's "" Theorem
 Dimensionless Groups = Variables (v) – Dimensions (d)
 = v-d
For example: a, b, c, d, x, y & z: (v = 7 physical variables)
M, L & T: (d = 3 dimensions)
this implies
4 () dimensionless groups or correlations: (7 - 3)

How do we apply Buckingham’s Theorem?
A. Create a RECURRING SET of variables: RSV:
Select "d" variables, one variable for each of the fundamental dimensions
RULES for choosing the RECURRING SET VARIABLES
1. Each of the fundamental dimensions (i.e. M, L, T….) must occur in at least ONE of the RSV’s
2. It must NOT be possible to form a dimensionless group from combinations of some or all of the
variables within the RSV’s
B. Express each of the FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS in terms of the

Recurring Set Variables.
C. The remaining variables (v-d) are called the NON-RECURRING VARIABLES

(NRV). We take each NRV and create DIMENSIONLESS  GROUPS by
multiplying each of the NRV’s by their relevant inverse-dimensions.
D. Re-write these DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS in terms of the RECURRING

SET VARIABLES-
We now have a set of DIMENSIONLESS CORRELATIONS that can be

employed to solve difficult engineering problems
For example: when we apply Buckingham’s Theorem to Heat Transfer problems

we obtain the following Dimensionless Correlations:
Nu, Re, Pr, Gr and S
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Determination of the Recurring Set:
There are 2 RULES which limit the Recurring Set of Variables that may be
selected:
RULE1. Each of the fundamental dimensions (eg M, L and T) must

occur in at least one of the recurring variables.
RULE2. It must not be possible to form a dimensionless group from

combinations of some or all of the variables within the recurring set.
Therefore, in the following example:
p = f(d, l, u, , ) [OR f(p, d, l, u, , ) = 0]

No. of physical variables v = 6
No. of fundamental dimensions d = 3
∴ (v – d) = 3 dimensionless groups
Next we apply both RULE1 and RULE2 to express the recurring set:
Applying RULE2 to the 6 physical quantities, it is clear that:
l 
l and d cannot be chosen since   forms a dimensionless group
d 
 P 
P,  , u cannot be chosen since   forms a dimensionless group.
2 
  .u 
In this particular example we can chose d, u and  as the Recurring Set of
Physical Variables since they fulfil both of the provisions for RULE1 and
RULE2.
Let’s check these physical variables and their respective dimensions:
d L
u  LT-1
  ML3
Each fundamental dimension occurs once (RULE1 met) and the three
variables chosen cannot form a dimensionless group (RULE2 met).
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Each of the dimensions, M, L, T can be expressed explicitly in terms of the

variables d, u, and . Thus:
L=d
M =  L3 =  d3
T = L u-1 = d u-1
The 3 dimensionless groups are then formed by taking the Non-Recurring

Set variables P, l and  in turn and creating DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS:
P has dimensions ML1T 2 therefore we can INVERT its dimensions to give:

 PM 1 LT 2 -DIMENSIONLESS
Dimensionless Group 1: 1 = P (d3)-1(d)(du-1)2= P/ u2
l has dimension L
 lL-1 -DIMENSIONLESS
Dimensionless Group 2: 2 = l (d 1 )  ( l )
d
 has dimensions ML1T 1

 .M 1 .LT -DIMENSIONLESS
Dimensionless Group 3: 3 = (d3)-1(d)(du-1) =  / du
 P l  
where  , ,  =0
 u d ud 
2
this may be re-written as:
P
 f  l , ud  ;
 .u 2  d 
[Note: the last term is arbitrarily inverted to give Re.]
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Buckingham’s  Theorem:-
Step by Step Approach (10 steps)
1. Apply intelligent engineering reasoning to deduce an appropriate function
2. Express each VARIABLE (Physical Quantity) in terms of Fundamental

Dimensions (Base Units)
3. How many Fundamental Dimensions, d= ____ ?
4. Select “d” VARIABLES to form the Recurring Set of Variables (RSV)
(CHECK: RULES 1 and 2 apply)
5. Let the remaining VARIABLES become the NON-Recurring Set of

Variables (NRV)
(the NRV’s will generate the DIMENSIONLESS  GROUPS)
6. Express each Fundamental Dimension in terms of the Recurring Set of

Variables
7. Multiply NON-RSV with their INVERTED DIMENSIONS
8. Replace DIMENSIONS with Recurring Set Variables
9. Summarise the DIMENSIONLESS  GROUPS
10. DIMENSIONLESS  GROUPS may be arbitrarily inverted as required
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Application of dimensional analysis to Heat Transfer by convection:
For heat transfer by convection:
q  f u, l ,  ,  , CP , T , g , K 
q  HL2T 1 ; u  LT 1 ;l  L
  ML1T 1 ;   ML
3
; K  HT 1 L1 1
C P  HM 1 1 ; g  LT 
2 1
; T  
9 variables and 5 fundamental dimensions
 4 dimensionless groups
RSV’s taken as: l ,  ,  , T , K
NRV’s: q, u, g , C P
l LLl
  ML3  M  L3  l 3
  ML1T 1  T  ML1  1  l 3l 1   l 2  1
T      T
K  HL1T 1 1  H  KLT  Kll 2  1 T  Kl 3  1 T
Thus:
1  qH 1 L2T  qK 1l 3  1 T 1l 2 l 2  1  qK 1lT 1
 2  uL1T  ul 1 l 2  1  ul 1
 3  g L1T 2  g l 1  2 l 4  2 T  gT 2  2 l 3
 4  C P H 1 M  C P K 1l 3  1 T 1 l 3 T  C P K 1 
 ql ul C P  gTl 3  2 
   , , ,   0
 KT  K 2 
where:
q
h  W 
 2 
T m K 
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Can rewrite this expression as:
Nu   (Re)(Pr)(Gr)
hl
Nu  = Nusselt Number
k
ul
Re  = Reynolds Number

CP 
Pr  = Prandtl Number
K
Tl 3  2
Gr  g = Grashof Number
2
The following simplifications may be inferred:
 For Natural Convection: (LAMINAR) velocity is surely dependent on

buoyancy effects and Re can be neglected.
Nu  f (Pr,Gr)
 For Forced Convection: (TURBULANT) buoyancy effects can be neglected

and:
Nu  f (Re, Pr)
 For Gases: Pr is approximately constant and Pr may be neglected
The application of Buckingham’s Theorem to Heat and Mass Transfer Boundaries

enables empirical expressions and correlations to be inferred.
We shall now examine these Boundary Layer Correlations in our analysis of

various Heat and Mass transfer problems.
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CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANFER CORRELATIONS

FOR TURBULENT FLOWS:
1. Dittus-Boelter correlation for turbulent convection in
tubes:
For fully developed turbulent flow in a smooth circular tube, the most
widely used equation is that proposed by Dittus-Boelter:
Nu  0.023 Re 0.8 Pr n
where:
n = 0.4 for heating
and
n = 0.3 for cooling
Properties are taken at the Mean Bulk Temperature of the FLUID.
The correlation is valid for:
Re  10,000 0.7  Pr  160 and L/d > 10
NB: D-B correlation is used for heating or cooling fluids in the SAME PHASE
Other correlations must be used for fluids changing PHASE
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Example 3:
Pipe in X-section:
“ h ” : NOT TO SCALE
ID = 20 mm
< T > = 40 ℃
Turbulent methanol
Methanol flows inside a pipe with 20 mm internal diameter (ID) at a velocity of:
u = 2 m s-1.
It enters the pipe at a temperature of 20 ℃ and leaves at 60 ℃.
Use the Dittus-Boelter correlation to estimate the value of the inside

convective Heat Transfer Coefficient (h).
Properties of Methanol:
Source: engineeringtoolbox.com
Interpolate as required!
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Using the Dittus-Boelter correlation for turbulent convective heating

where: n=0.4:
Nu  0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.4
where:
hd ud CP 
Nu  ; Re  ; Pr 
k  k
Firstly, we need to look up the properties of methanol: k ,  ,  and C P

assuming a mean bulk temperature of 40 ℃ via standard tables or text books:
For example: “Coulson + Richardson, Volume 1”:
thermal conductivity: k  0.230 W m-1 K-1; density:   792 kg m-3
dynamic viscosity:   0.45 x10 N s m-2; specific heat capacity: CP  2.6 kJ kg-1 K-1
3
Now, calculate the Heat Transfer Coefficient: “h”
792 x2 x0.02
 Re   70,400 (>10,000)
0.45 x10 3
2600 x0.45 x10 3

Pr   5.09
0.230

 Nu  0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.4 = 333
333x0.230
 h  3830 W m-2 K-1
0.02
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2. Colburn’s correlation for turbulent convection in tubes:

An alternative equation for TURBULANT flow in TUBES, has been proposed by
Colburn:
St. Pr 0.67  0.023 Re 0.2
h
St   Stanton Number
C P u
The term St. Pr 0.67 is known as the jn factor for heat transfer and the equation is
often written as:
jn  0.023 Re 0.2
[jn often plotted in correlations: see C + R, Perry]
NOTE: in the Colburn equation the viscosity is taken at the
Mean FILM Temperature = (Tsurface + Tbulk fluid)/2
In the previous example, suppose the methanol was heated by condensing

steam on the outside of the tube at 150 ℃. Assume temperature drop over pipe
is negligible, then we take Mean FILM Temperature as (150+40)/2 = 95 oC.
∴   0.24 x10 N s m-2

3
h h
St  
C P u 4118400
Pr 0.67  1.95
Re 0.2  0.0946
 h = 4595 W m-2 K-1
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3. Sieder and Tate equation for VISCOUS liquids:
For turbulent viscous liquids in tubes the Sieder and Tate equation
can be used
0.14
 
Nu  0.027 Re 0.8
Pr 0.33
 
 s 
  Viscosity at mean bulk temperature (Tmean = 40 ℃) and

 s  Viscosity at wall or surface (Tsurface = 150 ℃)
For the methanol example:
  0.45x10 3 N s m-2
 s (at150 o C )  0.14 x10 3 N s m-2
0.14
  
    1.18
 s 
h = 4734 W m-2 K-1
This factor accounts for most of the difference in the two values previously
calculated.
Note: This is inexact science and in design you would probably opt for a value
around 4000 W m-2 K-1
TURBULENT FLOW OF GASES
For gases Pr  0.74 , so Dittus-Boelter equations can be reduced to:
Nu  0.02 Re 0.8
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SPECIAL EQUATIONS FOR WATER:
EITHER
1. For turbulent flow in water the Sieder and Tate equation can be
approximated by:
u 0.8
h  42800.00488T  1 (W m-2 K-1)
d 0.2
where
T (mean bulk temperature) is in Kelvin (K)
u (velocity) in m s-1,
d in m
As the equation it is derived from, the expression applies for Re  10 , although

4
it is used for Re 2000 – 10 000 in preference to equations applying to laminar

flow
l
With viscous liquids where Re  10 4 the effect of tube geometry needs to be
d
accounted for and if laminar flow occurs (Re < 2000) then different equations
must be used (refer to C + R or Perry). Most flows encountered in heat
exchangers will be of the turbulent variety.
OR
2. Alternative equation for WATER:
( )
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DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGERS:

Co-Current Flow:
Counter-Current Flow:
These are simple pieces of heat exchange equipment.
(NOTE: Some L3 laboratory experiments based on this.)
To evaluate the heat transfer coefficient in the INNER PIPE use Sieder and
Tate equation as appropriate.
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To evaluate the heat transfer coefficient in the OUTER JACKET use the same
equations but diameter needs to be replaced by hydraulic mean diameter: de.
de = (4 x area for flow)/wetted diameter.
dt
dj
 d 2j d t2 
d e  4   / d j  d t 
 4 4 
 
d 2j  d t2 (d j  d t )(d j  d t )
de  
d j  dt (d j  d t )
 de  d j  dt
NB: “de” is used for calculating Reynolds Number -

do NOT use for the area of an annulus
So for a circular annulus the hydraulic diameter is simply the difference in

diameter between the inside of the outer tube and the outside of the inner tube.
LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (LMTD):
In heat exchanger equipment as double-pipe or shell and tube heat exchangers,

the temperature of the flowing fluids is continuously changing and hence T is
also changing.
The basic heat transfer equation is:
Q  U . A.T
Normally assume U remains constant, hence need to determine some value for
T which accounts for it changing.
Use the LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (TLM)
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LOG MEAN TEMPARATURE DIFFERENCE (LMTD)
For the above systems we calculate the LMTD as follows:
T1  T2
Tlm 
T
ln 1
T2
(See Coulson + Richardson Vol 1 for derivation)
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Example 4:
A liquid hydrocarbon stream flowing at 0.12 kg s-1 is to be cooled from

80 ℃ to 50 ℃ in a double-pipe heat exchanger (DPHE) using cooling water which
flows at 0.086 kg/s and enters at 25 ℃.
Specific heat of hydrocarbon is 1000 J kg-1 K-1 and for water is 4200 J kg-1 K-1
Find Tlm for: a) counter-current flow; b) co-current flow.
Solution:
̇ ̇
Heat from hydrocarbon = 0.12x1000x30=3600 W
Heat to cooling water = 0.086 x 4200 x(T-25)
T is cooling water outlet temperature.
 T = 35 oC.
a) Counter-current:
Draw counter-current Temperature Variation vs Distance graph:
Next calculate LMTD:
where 80 – 35 = 45 50 – 25 = 25
Log Mean Temperature Difference:
45  25 o
Tlm   34 C
45
ln
25
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b) Co-current:
Draw co-current Temperature Variation vs Distance graph:
Next calculate LMTD:
where 80 – 25 = 55 50 – 35 = 15
Log Mean Temperature Difference:
55  15 o
Tlm   30.8 C.
55
ln
15
Note:
Tlm is lower for co-current.
This indicates that co-current exchangers are less efficient for heat transfer
than counter-current exchangers.
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Further Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers examples:
i) Heating with CONDENSING STEAM:
Consider a co-current DPHE where a fluid is being heated by steam condensing

@ 140 ℃. The fluid enter @ 50 ℃ and exits @ 100 ℃.
In this case the steam has a constant temperature at its saturation

temperature.
Plot: T vs L “ideal” graph:
T/℃
Steam @ 140 ℃
140 140
T2 = 40
100
T1 = 90
Fluid being heated
50 L/m
and calculate the LMTD:
90  40
Tlm   61.6 ℃
90
ln
40
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Steam used for heating may contain some superheat and may get cooling of
the condensate. The heat content of these is negligible compared with latent
heat. Therefore ignore for LMTD purposes.
T vs L “real” graph:
T/℃
Tinitial
Superheated Steam
Tused
Condensing Steam
T2 Tfinal
T1
Fluid being heated
L/m
ii) BOILING LIQUID heated with condensing steam
T vs L graph:
T/℃
Boiling Liquid 1 @ TH
Use simple: T = (TH-TC)
Boiling Liquid 2 @ TC
L/m
Here both are at a constant temperature.  use simple T .
However, again beware of using superheat or condensate temperatures.
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NATURAL CONVECTION TO AIR:
For natural convection of AIR, the Nusselt Number (Nu) may be expressed, in
general, as:
( )
where C” applies specifically for AIR
leading to:
( )
where values of C” and n are dependent on:
1. the geometry and 2. the value of (Gr.Pr)
C” and n are found from look-up tables, as shown below:
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For still air convection from a hot body:
1
 T  4
h  (1.32) 
 l 
where:
T in K
l in meters
h in W m-2 K-1
For turbulent air conditions (i.e. some air movement over surface)
h is independent of l and proportional to T 

1
4
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Horizontal or Vertical PIPES
Streamline Turbulent
1
 T  4
h  1.18 
1
h= 1.65T 4
 o 
d
Vertical PLANES
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1
 T  4 1
h  1.35  h= 2.00T 4
 l 
Horizontal PLANES facing upwards
 T 1

h = 1.31 
4 1
h= 2.33T 4
 l 
 
Horizontal PLANES facing downwards

Streamline
1
 T  4
h = 0.59 
 l 
where: l is the mean length of the side.
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CORRELATIONS FOR CONDENSING VAPOURS:
When a vapour condenses onto a surface it gives up its latent heat and
transfers this to the surface and therefore heats the cooler medium.
e.g. steam is widely used as a heating medium in chemical plant.
When the vapour condenses a condensate film is formed. Streamline flow of

this film takes place and heat flows through the film by conduction.
Work by Nusselt and later Jakob has led to correlations for the heat transfer
coefficient (hm) during condensation.
1. Correlation for condensing vapours (e.g. steam) in vertical PIPES:
1 1
 2  2
 4M  2
hm  3 2   1.47 
k  g   
M is the mass flow rate per unit length of the pipe circumference
G
M 
d 0
where:
G = mass flow rate of the condensate
d0 = outside diameter of tube
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2. Correlation for condensing vapours (e.g. steam) in horizontal PIPES::
1 1
 2  2
 4M  3
hm  3 2   1.51 
k  g   
M is the mass flow rate per unit length of the pipe
G
M
l
where:
G = mass flow rate of the condensate
l = length of pipe
NOTE:
 , k ,  are properties of the condensate film
i.e. liquid properties at mean film temperature: < Tfilm >
Steam values for hm:
Condensing heat transfer coefficients (hm) tend to be relatively high and for
steam can range from:
9,500 < hm (steam) < 37,000 W m-2 K-1
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BOILING OF LIQUIDS:
Heat transfer during the boiling of a liquid on a surface is very important in

boilers and evaporators.
The mechanism of boiling is governed by the temperature difference (T)

between the hot surface and the boiling liquid.
When boiling starts bubbles are formed. These bubbles move away from the
surface causing turbulence. This effect enhances heat transfer.
As T increases boiling becomes more vigorous and the heat transfer

coefficient (h) increases. When a situation is reached where the bubbles are
formed so rapidly they cannot get away and a film of vapour is formed over the
surface. Heat transfer resistance over this film is high, the heat transfer
coefficient (h) falls, often quite rapidly.
Pg: 36

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Represent this diagrammatically (taken from C & R Vol. 1)
Pg: 37

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Factors affecting Heat Transfer in Boiling Liquids:
Many factors influence the boiling mechanism and hence the heat transfer
coefficient and these include:
The nature of the surface:
– different materials give different values and the age and condition of the
surface also has an effect.
The temperature difference:
(see figures on previous page)
The pressure:
– as pressure reduces so does heat transfer coefficient.
Determination of heat transfer coefficients for boiling is complex and texts

should be referred to where correlations and typical values are given.
Generally, for nucleate boiling, values of heat transfer coefficient are relatively
high and may not, therefore, give significant resistance to heat transfer.
----END OF SECTION 2A----
Pg: 38

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SECTION 2B:
RADIATION
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves
as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules. Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation
does not require the presence of an intervening medium. In fact, energy
transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no
attenuation in vacuum. Energy from the sun reaches the earth by radiation.
In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form
of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature. It differs from
other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, gamma rays,
microwaves, radio waves and television waves, which are not related to
temperature. All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal
radiation.
Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquid and gases emit,
absorb and transmit radiation to varying degrees. However, radiation is usually
considered to be a surface phenomenon for solids such as metals and wood,
which are opaque to thermal radiation since the radiation emitted by their
interior regions does not reach the surface. The radiation incident on such
bodies is usually absorbed within a few microns from the surface.
Hot bodies emit heat as radiation (electromagnetic waves). This energy may fall
on a second body in the surroundings where it is either absorbed, reflected or
transmitted. If the body is opaque to thermal radiation then negligible energy
is transmitted.
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Kirchoff’s Law:
Consider two bodies A and B of area A1 and A2 that are in a large enclosure from
which no energy is lost to the outside. The energy absorbed by A from the
enclosure  A1a1 I  where a1is the absorptivity and I’ is the rate at which
radiation falls on a per unit area. At the same time A will emit energy at the
rate E1.A1, where E1, is emissive power (energy emitted per unit area per unit
time).
At steady-state, Body A:
Energy absorbed = Energy emitted
E1
 A1a1 I   E1 A1 I 
a1
E2
Similarly for Body B A2 a2 I   A2 E2 I 
a2
E1 E 2 E
 
a1 a 2 a
Thus, for all bodies, at steady state, the rate of emissive power (E) to
absorptivity (a) is the same.
“ a ” has a maximum value of 1 for a black body and this will also give the
maximum value for E.
Emissivity “” [OR “e”] of a body is the ratio of its emitting power to that of a
black body.
E

Eb
E
is constant for all bodies,
a
E Eb
so 
a ab
  E  a
Eb ab
ab  1,
 for any body   a
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ENERGY EMITTED BY A BLACK BODY:

The maximum total energy (Eb / W m-2), which can be emitted from a surface at
an absolute temperature Ts per unit area per unit time, is given by:
The Stefan-Boltzmann law as:
Eb  Ts4
where
 = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4
(i.e. the Stefan-Boltzmann constant)
The idealised surface, which emits radiation at this maximum rate, is called a
blackbody. The radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody
radiation. The energy emitted by all real surfaces per unit area per unit time is
less than the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature and is
expressed as:
E   Ts4
where  is the emissivity of the surface
The property emissivity, whose value is in the range 0    1 is a measure of

how closely a surface approximates a blackbody for which   1 .
Another important radiation property of a surface is its absorptivity (  ) which

is the fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface which is absorbed by
the surface. Like emissivity, its value is in the range 0    1. A blackbody
absorbs the entire radiation incident on it, i.e.it is a perfect absorber (   1 ),
as well as perfect emitter.
In general both  and  of a surface depend on the temperature and the
wavelength of the radiation.
The emissivity’s () of some surfaces are given below:
Aluminium foil 0.07 Anodized aluminium 0.82

Polished copper 0.03 Polished gold 0.03
Polished silver 0.02 Polished stainless steel 0.17
Black paint 0.98 White paint 0.90
White paper 0.92-0.97 Asphalt pavement 0.85-0.93
Red brick 0.93-0.96 Wood 0.82-0.92
Soil 0.93-0.96 Water 0.96
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HEAT TRANFERRED BY RADIATION:
Values of  vary for different surfaces. For a black body  = 1, for most
industrial non-metallic surfaces and non-polished metals   0.9. For highly
polished surfaces such as copper and aluminium e can be as low as 0.03.
T1
(Body
) T2 (Surroundings)
The energy emitted by a body at temperature T1 is:
qemit= T14
If the surroundings are at T2 then the body will also absorb energy:
qabsorb =T24
Net radiation per unit area from the body:
qNETT = (T14 – T24)
Fitting it to the format:
q  hs T1  T2 
defines the radiation transfer coefficient (hS)

hs 
q

T1  T2 T1  T2
T14  T24  
This gives the bases of radiative heat transfer. In the design of furnaces many
factors are involved including the geometry of the furnace, pipe arrangements,
etc.
Pg: 42

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Example 5:
Calculate the TOTAL heat loss, (a) by radiation and (b) by natural
convection from an unlagged horizontal steam pipe, given the following
data:
OD = 50 mm outside diameter at TO = 377 K
ambient air temperature of: TA = 283 K.
emissivity:  = 0.9
Clearly state any assumptions that you make.
[NOTE: Reference to C/R Volume 1 may prove useful]
Solution:
For radiation: qr  e T14  T24 

qr  5.67 x10 8 x0.9377 4  2834   704 W/m2.
For natural convection to air :
General Form of expression: hc = C Tn l3n-1

Determine GrPr then use Convection in Air tables to evaluate “C” and “n”
Given GrPr ≈ 5x105, from tables (C and R Vol1) implies C=1.32 and n=0.25
qc  hc T  817 W/m2.
Total Heat Loss q  qr  qc  1521 W/m2.
____________________________________________________
END OF HT SECTION 2
Pg: 43

Lecture Notes h81hmt Heat Transfer Section 2 Convection and Radiation

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Lecture notes, H81HMT: Heat Transfer: Section 2:

Heat and Mass Transfer (University of Nottingham)

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STUDENT NAME: _______________________________

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL AND

MODULE CONVENOR: Dr. Vernon Collis

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H81HMT BOOKLET 2 DimAnal Conv and Radn FINAL 2011

Heat Transfer Formulae Sheet

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H81HMT BOOKLET 2 DimAnal Conv and Radn FINAL 2011

Useful Symbols and Units:

[Note to Students: Complete the UNITS column]

Symbol Quantity Units

Q rate of heat transfer per unit area

q rate of heat transfer

r1, r2 inner and outer tube radii

h heat transfer coefficient

cP specific heat capacity

 = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4 )

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H81HMT BOOKLET 2 DimAnal Conv and Radn FINAL 2011

Dimensionless Numbers and Correlations

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H81HMT BOOKLET 2 DimAnal Conv and Radn FINAL 2011

NATURAL CONVECTION or FORCED CONVECTION in PIPES

For convective heat transfer:

BULK FLUID (TMEAN)

SOLID SURFACE (THOT)

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H81HMT BOOKLET 2 DimAnal Conv and Radn FINAL 2011

Thus, it is necessary to be able to determine h for a given situation.

Many factors affect h including:

viscosity (  ); density (  ); specific heat (cP); thermal conductivity (k);

and the factor determining natural circulation –

the product of coefficient of expansion (  ) and acceleration due to gravity (g).

We can thus write: q   (u, l ,  ,  , c p , T , g , k )

This relationship can only be determined experimentally, but it can be

Determination of these relationships involves DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS and

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H81HMT BOOKLET 2 DimAnal Conv and Radn FINAL 2011

Dimensional Analysis depends on the principle that any equation or relation

These five fundamental DIMENSIONS can be expressed as:

Variables can then be expressed in terms of these:

Heat Flow: Q HT-1

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H81HMT BOOKLET 2 DimAnal Conv and Radn FINAL 2011

Example 1: Let’s consider a simple pendulum:

What does its period (T / s) depend on?

Let’s try to make some intelligent engineering guesses:

T / s = f (length (l / m), mass (m / kg), gravity (g / m s-2)) ????

∴ in its simplest form, we may write: T = k la mb gc

re-writing in terms of SI units:

s1 ≡ (m)a (kg)b (m s-2)c

better to use DIMENSIONS:

T1 ≡ (L)a (M)b (L T-2)c

T1 ≡ (L)a+c (M)b ( T)-2c

Now equate the powers and solve:

0 = a + c (equ1) 0 = b (equ2) 1 = -2c (equ3)

∴b=0 c = -1/2 and a = 1/2

hence our expression for “T” becomes:

where k is constant to be determined via experiment (k = 2 )