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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CMOS FABRICATION
2.1 n-well CMOS process
2.2 p-well CMOS process
2.3 Twin -Tub Process
3. LOGIC GATES
CMOS Inverter
NAND Gate
NOR Gate
In CMOS technology, both N-type and P-type transistors are used to realize
logic functions. The same signal which turns on a transistor of one type is used to turn off a
transistor of the other type. This allows the design of logic devices using only simple
switches, without the need for a pull-up resistor.
2. CMOS FABRICATION
Step 1: Si Substrate
The n-well CMOS process starts with a moderately doped (with impurity
concentration around 2 ×1021 impurities/m3) p-type silicon substrate.
p substrate
Step 2: Oxidation
This step deposits a thin layer of SiO2 over the complete wafer by exposing it
to high-purity oxygen and hydrogen at approx. 1000oC
SiO2
p substrate
Photoresist
SiO2
p substrate
Step 4: Masking
The first lithographic mask defining the n-well region is brought in close
proximity to the wafer. The mask is opaque in the regions we want to process and transparent
in the other regions The combination of mask and wafer is now exposed to Ultraviolet rays.
Where the mass is transparent, the photoresist becomes insoluble.
Uv rays
n-type
mask
Photoresist
SiO 2
p substrate
The soluble photoresist are removed by treating the wafer with acidic or basic
solution. Then the wafer is soft baked at low temperature to harden the the remaining
photoresist
Photoresist
SiO2
p substrate
SiO2 is selectively removed from areas of wafer that are not covered by
photoresist by using hydrofluoric acid.
Photoresist
SiO2
p substrate
SiO2
p substrate
DIFFUSION
ION IMPLANTATION
Dopants are introduced as ions into the material. The ion implantation system
directs and sweeps a beam of purified ions over the semiconductor surface. The acceleration
of ions determines how deep they will penetrate the material, while the beam current and the
exposure time determine the dosage.
SiO2
n well
Strip off the remaining oxide using HF and we have bare wafer with n-well
n well
p substrate
Deposit very thin layer of gate oxide and then using chemical vapor
deposition process a layer of polysilicon is deposited. In this process silane gas flows over
the heated wafer coated with SiO2 at a temperature of approx. 650oC.The resulting reaction
produces a noncrystaline or amorphous material called polysilicon.
Polysilicon
Thin gate oxide
n well
p substrate
Polysilicon
Thin gate oxide
n well
p substrate
Oxidation
n well
p substrate
Uv rays
n+ Diffusion
n well
p substrate
Masking
n well
p substrate
Etching
n+ n+ n+
n well
p substrate
n+ n+ n+
n well
p substrate
Removal of SiO2
p+ n+ n+ p+ p+ n+
n well
p substrate
Now we need to wire the devices. Cover chip with thick field oxide. Etch
oxide where contact cuts are needed
Metal
Thick field oxide
p+ n+ n+ p+ p+ n+
n well
p substrate
The fabrication of p-well cmos process is similar to n-well process except that
p-wells acts as substrate for the n-devices within the parent n-substrate
3. LOGIC GATES
Cmos inverter
• When a low voltage (0 V) is applied at the input, the top transitor (P-type) is
conducting (switch closed) while the bottom transitor behaves like an open circuit.
• Therefore, the supply voltage (5 V) appears at the output.
• Conversely, when a high voltage (5 V) is applied at the input, the bottom transitor
(N-type) is conducting (switch closed) while the top transitor behaves like an open
circuit.
• Hence, the ouput voltage is low (0 V).
• The function of this gate can be summarized by the following table:
Input Output
High(1) Low(0)
Low(0) High(1)
• The output is the opposite of the input – this gate inverts the input.
• Notice that always one of the transistor will be an open circuit and no current flows
from the supply voltage to ground.
V1 V2 Output
Low Low High
Low High High
High Low High
High High Low
• If logical 1’s are associated with high voltages then the function of this gate is called
NAND for negated AND.
• Again, there is never a conducting path from the supply voltage to ground.
V1 V2 Output
Low Low High
Low High Low
High Low Low
High High Low
• If logical 1's are associated with high voltages then the function of this gate is called
NOR for negated OR.
• Again, there is never a conducting path from the supply voltage to ground.
The Stick diagrams and layout representation for CMOS are a logical
extension of the nMOS style. The exception is yellow is used to identify p-type transistors
and wires as depletion mode devices are not used.
Polysilicon
n-type diffusion
p-type diffusion
Contacts
Via
Cuts called vias are used to make contact between two metal layers
n-type p-type
poly metal1 metal2
diffusion diffusion
n-type
diffusion
p-type
diffusion
poly
metal1
metal2
symbol key
allowed - connection formed
prohibited
transistor formed
contact needed if connection required,
otherwise no connection is made
via needed if connection required,
otherwise no connection is made
• When wires of the same type are crossed connection is made even if you don't use
contact or via.
• Diffusions of the opposite types cannot cross and contact
• when you want to connect poly (red) to n-diff (green) or p-diff (yellow), you must
first connect poly (red) to metal1 (blue) and then metal1 (blue) to n-diff (green) or p-
diff (yellow).
• Metal1 (blue) can contact ndiff (green), pdiff (yellow) and poly (red), but remember
contact is needed, otherwise no connection is made, even if the layers are crossed
• Metal1 (blue) can contact metal2 (purple), but remember, via is needed, otherwise no
connection is made even if the layers are crossed.
1. Two horizontal wires are used for connection with VSS and VDD. This is done in metal2,
but you can decide to use metal1 instead.
2. Two vertical wires (p-diff and n-diff) are used to represent the p-transistor (yellow) and n-
transistor (green).
3. Then the gates of the transistors are joined with a polysilicon wire, and connected to the
input.
4. The drains of two transistors are then connected with metal1 and joined to the output.
There cannot be direct connection from n-transistor to p-transistors.
5. The sources of the transistors are next connected to VSS and VDD with metal1. Notice
that vias are used, not contacts.
Note that there is usually a trade-off between higher yield which is obtained
through conservative geometries, and better area efficiency, which is obtained through
aggressive, high- density placement of various features on the chip. The layout design rules
which are specified for a particular fabrication process normally represent a reasonable
optimum point in terms of yield and density. It must be emphasized, however, that the design
rules do not represent strict boundaries which separate "correct" designs from "incorrect"
ones. A layout which violates some of the specified design rules may still result in an
operational circuit with reasonable yield, whereas another layout observing all specified
design rules may result in a circuit which is not functional and/or has very low yield. To
summarize, we can say, in general, that observing the layout design rules significantly
increases the probability of fabricating a successful product with high yield.
• Micron rules, in which the layout constraints such as minimum feature sizes and
minimum allowable feature separations, are stated in terms of absolute dimensions in
micrometers.
• Lambda rules, which specify the layout constraints in terms of a single parameter (λ)
and, thus, allow linear, proportional scaling of all geometrical constraints.
Lambda-based layout design rules were originally devised to simplify the
industry- standard micron-based design rules and to allow scaling capability for various
processes. It must be emphasized, however, that most of the submicron CMOS process
design rules do not lend themselves to straightforward linear scaling. The use of lambda-
based design rules must therefore be handled with caution in sub-micron geometries. In the
following, we present a sample set of the lambda-based layout design rules devised for the
MOSIS CMOS process and illustrate the implications of these rules on a section a simple
layout which includes two transistors
SCALING
The size of the circuits in IC’s continues to increase. Proper scaling allows to shrink a design.
Note the gain of increased current level is offset by the higher voltage swing, which only
hurts power dissipation.
Also note that this is very different from the situation when transistors were operating in the
long-channel mode.
Here, current was a quadratic function of the voltage.
In this scenario, keeping voltage constant gave a performance advantage (net reduction
in "on resistance"
Other reasons for scaling the supply voltage include hot-carrier effect and oxide breakdown.
These latter reasons played a significant role in the trend we see today.
Bear in mind that this is a first order analysis -- in reality, there is a (small) performance
benefit with fixed voltage due to, e.g., channel length modulation.
Supply voltage is now being scaled, but at a slower rate than feature size.
For example, from 0.5 μm to 0.1 μm, supply voltage reduced from 5 V to 1.5V.
Then why not stick with full scaling model if there is no benefit to keeping the supply
voltage
higher.
Some device voltages, e.g., silicon bandgap and built-in junction potential, are material
parameters and cannot be scaled.
VT scaling is limited since making it too low makes it difficult to turn off the devices
completely.
This is aggravated by large process variations.
A more general scaling model is needed, where dimensions and voltages are scaled
independently
using S and U respectively.
Under fixed voltage scaling, U = 1 as shown in the last column of the table.
General Scaling
Under general scaling model, performance scenario is identical (1/S) to other models but
power dissipation lies between the two models, S > U > 1.
Recent CMOS technologies and projections of the future.
When the clock is low, the NMOS device is cutoff while the PMOS is turned
ON. This has the effect of disconnecting the output node from ground while simultaneously
connecting the node to VDD. Since the input to the next stage is charged up through the
PMOS transistor when the clock is low, this phase of the clock is known as the ‘precharge’
phase.
When the clock is high however, the PMOS is cutoff and the bottom NMOS is
turned ON, thereby disconnecting the output node from VDD and providing a possible pull-
down path to ground through the bottom NMOS transistor. This part of the clock cycle is
known as the ‘evaluation’ phase, and so the bottom NMOS is called the ‘evaluation NMOS.’
When the clock is in the evaluation phase, the output node will either be maintained at its
previous logic level or discharged to GND. In other words, the output node may be
selectively discharged through the NMOS logic structure depending upon whether or not a
path to GND is formed due to inputs of the NMOS logic block. If a path to ground is not
formed during the evaluation phase, the output node will maintain its previous voltage level
since no path exists from the output to VDD or GND for the charge to flow away.
There are many advantages to using dynamic CMOS logic over static CMOS
logic or Pseudo NMOS logic.
There are several potential problems with the implimentation of this design
that need to be considered.
• Since the basic dynamic CMOS logic configuration causes the output node to be
disconnected from VDD during the evaluation phase, even if the output is also
disconnected from GND, the charge of the output node will begin to diminish due
to the non-ideal effects of the system. Parasitic capacitances, for example, may
leak the charge away from the output node and eventually cause a logic error.
Since there is, however, a finite time needed for the charge to erroneously escape,
the use of faster the clock speeds will eliminate this kind of error. This implies
however, that there is a minimum clock speed at which dynamic CMOS logic
structures may be operated. It also eliminates the possibility to idle the basic
dynamic CMOS logic circuit.
CMOS domino gates are formed by cascading dynamic gates. This kind of
design is referred to as Domino Logic since the pull-down of one stage can conditionally
cause the pull-down of succeeding stages and so on like falling dominoes. The number of
Domino Logic stages that may be cascaded is limited only by the sum of the total pull-down
times in all cascaded logic blocks which must be contained within the evaluation clock
phase.
The dynamic gate works or operates in two phases: Precharge phase and
evaluation. During the precharge phase, the clock input is low, turning off the NMOS device
and switching on the PMOS device, this pulls the output high, as there is no path from the
output to the ground.
During evaluation the clock input is high, turning the PMOS transistor off and
switching on the NMOS transistor. In this case the output of the device depends on the
inputs. According to the precharge rule there should be no active path from the output to the
ground during the precharge cycle, otherwise there will be a dissension between the PMOS
precharge transistor and the NMOS transistors pulling to ground, consuming excess power
and leaving the output at indeterminate value.
The function of the clocked n- and p- fets in the PMOS logic stage are
reversed compared to the NMOS logic stage.
• Although this structure eliminates the cascading problem, the excess use of
PMOS in forming the logic gates reduces the maximum clocking speed and
increases the surface area of the system.
• Another significant drawback to this configuration is the use of the two-phase
clock The signals of both clock phases must be delivered at nearly the same
instant for the circuit to operate correctly.