Drilling Fluids

By: Herish N. Hamarash

Basic Definition:
a mixture of clays, water, and chemicals pumped down the drill string while an oil well is being
drilled to lubricate the mechanism, carry away rock cuttings, and maintain pressure so that oil
or gas does not escape

In other term

A drilling uid, or mud, is any uid that is used in a drilling operation in which that uid is
circulated or pumped from the surface, down the drill string, through the bit, and back to the
surface via the annulus.
Principal Functions of Drilling Fluids
The principal functions of the drilling fluid are

A. Subsurface pressure control

B. Cuttings removal and transport
C. Suspension of solid particle
D. Sealing of permeable formations
E. Stabilizing the wellbore
F. Preventing formation damage
G. Cooling and lubricating the bit and drill string
H. Transmitting hydraulic horsepower to the bit
I. Facilitating the collection of formation data
J. Partial support of drill string and casing weight
K. Controlling corrosion
L. Assisting in cementing and completion
A- Subsurface pressure control

A column of drilling fluid exerts a hydrostatic pressure that

=
Where:
HP = hydrostatic Pressure Hydrostatic pressures can easily be converted to
g = gravitational acceleration equivalent mud weights and pressure gradients.
f = Formation density Hydrostatic pressure gradient is given by:
D = true vertical depth or height of the column
= . /
in field units, is equal to

P = 0.052 x x TVD
where
P - hydrostatic pressure of fluid column in wellbore, psi;
- mud weight in pounds per gallon (ppg)
TVD - True Vertical Depth, ft - during normal drilling operations, this corresponds to
the height of the fluid column in the wellbore.
Example:
Calculate the hydrostatic pressure for the following wells:
a. mud weight = 9 ppg, hole depth = 10100 ft MD (measured depth), 9900 ft TVD (true
vertical depth)
b. mud gradient = 0.468 psi / ft, hole depth = 10100 ft MD (measured depth), 9900 ft TVD
(true vertical depth)

Solution:
a. HP (psi) = 0.052 * f (ppg) * D (ft) = 0.052 * 9 * 9900 = 4632 psi
b. Hydrostatic Pressure = fluid gradient (psi/ft) * depth (ft) = 0.468 * 9900 = 4633 psi
B- Cuttings Removal and Transport

Circulation of the drilling fluid causes cuttings to rise from the bottom of the hole to the
surface. Efficient cuttings removal requires circulating rates that are sufficient to override the
force of gravity acting upon the cuttings. Other factors affecting the cuttings removal include
drilling fluid density and rheology, annular velocity, hole angle, and cuttings-slip velocity.

In most cases, the rig hydraulics program provides for an annular velocity sufficient to result
in a net upward movement of the cuttings. Annular velocity is determined by the cross-
sectional area of the annulus and the pump output.
C- Suspension of Solid Particles

When the rig's mud pumps are shut down and circulation is halted (e.g., during connections, trips
or downtime), cuttings that have not been removed from the hole must be held in suspension.
Otherwise, they will fall to the bottom (or, in highly deviated wells, to the low side) of the hole.
The rate of fall of a particle through a column of drilling fluid depends on the density of the
particle and the fluid, the size of the particle, the viscosity of the fluid, and the thixotropic (gel-
strength) properties of the fluid. The controlled gelling of the fluid prevents the solid particles from
settling, or at least reduces their rate of fall. High gel strengths also require higher pump
pressure to break circulation. In some cases, it may be necessary to circulate for several hours
before a trip in order to clean the hole of cuttings and to prevent fill in the bottom of the hole from
occurring during a round trip.
D- Sealing of permeable formation

As the drill bit penetrates a permeable formation, the liquid portion of the drilling fluid filters into the
formation and the solids form a relatively impermeable "cake" on the borehole wall. The quality of
this filter cake governs the rate of filtrate loss to the formation. Drilling fluid systems should be
designed to deposit a thin, low permeability filter cake on the formation to limit the invasion of mud
filtrate. This improves wellbore stability and prevents a number of drilling and production problems.
Potential problems related to thick filter cake and excessive filtration include tight hole conditions,
poor log quality, increased torque and drag, stuck pipe, lost circulation and formation damage.

Bentonite is the best base material from which to build a tough, low-permeability filter cake.
Polymers are also used for this purpose.
E- Stabilizing the Wellbore
The borehole walls are normally competent immediately after the bit penetrates a section.
Wellbore stability is a complex balance of mechanical and chemical factors. The chemical
composition and mud properties must combine to provide a stable wellbore until casing can
be run and cemented. Regardless of the chemical composition of the fluid and other factors,
the weight of the mud must be within the necessary range to balance the mechanical forces
acting on the wellbore. The other cause of borehole instability is a chemical reaction between
the drilling fluid and the formations drilled. In most cases, this instability is a result of water
absorption by the shale. Inhibitive fluids (calcium, sodium, potassium, and oil-base fluids) aid
in preventing formation swelling, but even more important is the placement of a quality filter
cake on the walls to keep fluid invasion to a minimum.
F - Preventing Formation Damage

Any reduction in a producing formations natural porosity or permeability is considered to be

formation damage. If a large volume of drilling-fluid filtrate invades a formation, it may damage the
formation and hinder hydrocarbon production.

There are several factors to consider when selecting a drilling fluid:

Fluid compatibility with the producing reservoir

Presence of hydratable or swelling formation clays

Fractured formations

The possible reduction of permeability by invasion of nonacid soluble materials into the formation
G - Cooling and Lubricating the Bit

Friction at the bit, and between the drillstring and wellbore, generates a considerable amount of
heat. The circulating drilling fluid transports the heat away from these frictional sites by absorbing
it into the liquid phase of the fluid and carrying it away.

The laying down of a thin wall of "mud cake" on the wellbore aids in reducing torque and drag.
The amount of lubrication provided by a drilling fluid varies widely and depends on the type and
quantity of drill solids and weight material, and also on the chemical composition of the system as
expressed in terms of pH, salinity and hardness. Indications of poor lubrication are high torque
and drag, abnormal wear, and heat checking of drillstring components.
H - Transmitting Hydraulic Horsepower to the Bit

During circulation, the rate of fluid flow should be regulated so that the mud pumps deliver the optimal
amount of hydraulic energy to clean the hole ahead of the bit. Hydraulic energy also provides power
for mud motors to rotate the bit and for Measurement While Drilling (MWD) and Logging While Drilling
(LWD) tools. Hydraulics programs are based on sizing the bit nozzles to maximize the hydraulic
horsepower or impact force imparted to the bottom of the well.
I - Facilitating the Collection of Formation Data

The drilling fluid program and formation evaluation program are closely related. As drilling
proceeds, for example, mud loggers monitor mud returns and drilled cuttings for signs of oil and
gas. They examine the cuttings for mineral composition, paleontology and visual signs of
hydrocarbons. This information is recorded on a mud log that shows lithology, penetration rate,
gas detection and oil-stained cuttings, plus other important geological and drilling parameters.
Measurement-While-Drilling (MWD) and Logging-While-Drilling (LWD) procedures are likewise
influenced by the mud program, as is the selection of wireline logging tools for post-drilling
evaluation.
J - Partial support of Drill String and Casing Weights

With average well depths increasing, the weight supported by the surface wellhead equipment is
becoming an increasingly crucial factor in drilling. Both drillpipe and casing are buoyed by a force
equal to the weight of the drilling fluid that they displace. When the drilling fluid density is increased,
the total weight supported by the surface equipment is reduced considerably.
K - Assistance in Cementing and Completion

The drilling fluid must produce a wellbore into which casing can be run and cemented
effectively, and which does not impede completion operations. During casing runs, the mud
must remain fluid and minimize pressure surges so that fracture-induced lost circulation does
not occur. The mud should have a thin, slick filter cake. To cement casing properly, the mud
must be completely displaced by the spacers, flushes and cement. Effective mud displacement
requires that the hole be near-gauge and that the mud have low viscosity and low, non-
progressive gel strengths. Completion operations such as perforating and gravel packing also
require a near-gauge wellbore and may be affected by mud characteristics
 Mud Additives

Various materials may be added at the surface to change or modify the

characteristics of the mud. For example:

1. Weighting agents (usually barite) are added to increase the density of the
mud, which helps to control subsurface pressures and build the wallcake.

2. Viscosifying agents (clays, polymers, and emulsified liquids) are added to

thicken the mud and increase its hole-cleaning ability.

3. Dispersants or deflocculants may be added to thin the mud, which helps to

reduce surge, swab, and circulating-pressure problems.
Drilling Fluid Classifications

Water-Based Drilling Fluids

A water-base fluid is one that uses water for the liquid phase and commercial clays for viscosity.
The continuous phase may be fresh water, brackish water, seawater, or concentrated brines
containing any soluble salt. The commercial clays used may be bentonite, attapulgite, sepiolite, or
polymer. The use of other components such as thinners, filtration-control additives, lubricants, or
inhibiting salts in formulating a particular drilling fluid is determined by the type of system required to
drill the formations safely and economically. Some of the major systems include fresh-water fluids,
brackish or seawater fluids, saturated salt fluids, inhibited fluids, gyp fluids, lime fluids, potassium
fluids, polymer-based fluids, and brines used in drilling, completion or workover operations (including
single-salt, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, calcium chloride, and two and three-salt brines).
Oil-Based Drilling Fluids
In many areas, diesels were used to formulate and maintain OBMs. Crude oils had sometimes been used instead of diesel but
posed tougher safety problems. Thus, today, mineral oils and new synthetic fluids replace diesel and crude due to their lower
toxicity.

Advantages of OBMs:

1. Shale stability: OBMs are most suited for drilling water sensitive shales. The whole mud results non reactive towards shales.

2. ROP: allowing to drill faster than WBMs, still providing excellent shale stability

3. High Temperature: can drill where bottom hole temperature exceeds WBMs tolerances; can handle up to 550 0F.

4. Lubricity: OBMs has a thin filter cake and the friction between the pipe and the wellbore is minimized, thus reducing the risk of
differential sticking.

5. Low pore pressure formation: Mud weight of OBMs can be maintained less than that of water (as low as 7.5 PPG)

6. Corrosion control: corrosion of pipe is controlled Since oil is the external phase.

7. Re-use: OBMs are well-suited to be used over and over again. They can be stored for long periods of time since bacterial
growth is suppressed.
An oil-base drilling fluid is one in which the continuous phase is oil. The terms oil-base mud and
inverted or invert-emulsion mud sometimes are used to distinguish among the different types of oil-
base drilling fluids. Traditionally, an oil-base mud is a fluid with 0 to 5% by volume of water, while an
invert-emulsion mud contains more than 5% by volume of water. However, since most oil muds
contain some emulsified water, have oil as the liquid phase, and (if properly formulated) have an oil
filtrate, we do not distinguish among them in this discussion. Synthetic muds may include esters,
olefins, and paraffin.
 Drilling Fluid Properties
The physical properties of a drilling fluid, particularly its density and rheological properties, are
monitored to assist in optimizing the drilling process. These physical properties contribute to several
important aspects of successful drilling, including:

Providing pressure control to prevent an influx of formation fluid

Providing energy at the bit to maximize Rate of Penetration (ROP)

Providing wellbore stability through pressured or mechanically stressed zones

Suspending cuttings and weight material during static periods

Permitting separation of drilled solids and gas at surface

Removing cuttings from the well

 Viscosity
The concepts of shear rate and shear stress apply to all fluid flow, and can be describe in term of
two fluid layers (A and B) moving past each other when a force (F) has been applied.

When a fluid is flowing, a force exists in the fluid that opposes the flow. This force is known as the
shear stress. It can be thought of as a frictional force that arises when one layer of fluid slides by
another. Since it is easier for shear to occur between layers of fluid than between the outer most layer
of fluid and the wall of a pipe, the fluid in contact with the wall does not flow. The rate at which one layer
is moving past the next layer is the shear rate. The shear rate is therefore a velocity gradient. The
formula for the shear rate is
In the most general sense, viscosity describes a substances resistance to flow. Hence a high-
viscosity drilling mud may be characterized as "thick," while a low-viscosity mud may be described
as "thin."

Viscosity (), by definition, is the ratio of shear stress () to shear rate ():

Unit: PaS, NS/m2, kg/ms, cp, dyneS/cm2, lbfS/100ft2

 Fluid Types

Newtonian Fluids

The simplest class of fluids is called Newtonian. The base fluids (freshwater, seawater, diesel oil,
mineral oils and synthetics) of most drilling fluids are Newtonian. In these fluids, the shear stress is
directly proportional to the shear rate. The points lie on a straight line passing through the origin
(0,0) of the graph on rectangular coordinates. The viscosity of a Newtonian fluid is the slope of this
shear stress/shear rate line. The yield stress (stress required to initiate flow) of a Newtonian fluid
will always be zero. When the shear rate is doubled, the shear stress is also doubled. When the
circulation rate for this fluid is doubled, the pressure required to pump the fluid will be squared (e.g.
2 times the circulation rate requires 4 times the pressure).
 Newtonian Fluids

The shear stress at various shear rates

must be measured in order to characterize
the flow properties of a fluid. Only one
measurement is necessary since the shear
stress is directly proportional to the shear
rate for a Newtonian fluid. From this
measurement the shear stress at any other
shear rate can be calculated from the
equation:
 Non-Newtonian Fluids

When a fluid contains clays or colloidal particles, these particles tend to bump into one another,
increasing the shear stress or force necessary to maintain a given flow rate. If these particles are
long compared to their thickness, the particle interference will be large when they are randomly
oriented in the flow stream. However, as the shear rate is increased, the particles will line up in
the flow stream and the effect of particle interaction is decreased. This causes the velocity profile in
a pipe to be different from that of water. In the center of the pipe, where the shear rate is low, the
particle interference is high and the fluid tends to flow more like a solid mass. The velocity profile is
flattened. This flattening of the velocity profile increases the sweep efficiency of a fluid in displacing
another fluid and also increases the ability of a fluid to carry larger particles.
A rheological model is a description of the relationship between the shear stress and shear rate.
Newtons law of viscosity is the rheological model describing the flow behavior of Newtonian fluids.
It is also called the Newtonian model. However, since most drilling fluids are non-Newtonian fluids,
this model does not describe their flow behavior. In fact, since no single rheological model can
precisely describe the flow characteristics of all drilling fluids, many models have been developed
to describe the flow behavior of non-Newtonian fluids. Bingham Plastic, Power Law and Modified
Power Law models are discussed. The use of these models requires measurements of shear
stress at two or more shear rates. From these measurements, the shear stress at any other shear
rate can be calculated.
 Fluid Types

Rotational Viscometer
 Fluid Types
Bingham Plastic Fluids

The Bingham Plastic model has been used most often to describe the flow
characteristics of drilling fluids. It is one of the older rheological models currently in
use. This model describes a fluid in which a finite force is required to initiate flow
(yield point) and which then exhibits a constant viscosity with increasing shear rate
(plastic viscosity).
 Fluid Types

Bingham Plastic Fluids

The two-speed viscometer was designed to measure the Bingham Plastic

rheological values for yield point and plastic viscosity. A flow curve for a typical
drilling fluid taken on the two-speed Fann VG meter is illustrated in Figure below.
The slope of the straight line portion of this consistency curve is plastic viscosity.
 Fluid Types
Bingham Plastic Fluids

Most drilling fluids are not true Bingham Plastic fluids. For the typical mud, if a
consistency curve for a drilling fluid is made with rotational viscometer data, a non-
linear curve is formed that does not pass through the origin, as shown in Flow
diagram of Newtonian and typical mud. The development of gel strengths causes
the y-intercept to occur at a point above the origin due to the minimum force
required to break gels and start flow. Plug flow, a condition wherein a gelled fluid
flows as a plug with a flat viscosity profile, is initiated as this force is increased. As
the shear rate increases, there is a transition from plug to viscous flow. In the
viscous flow region, equal increments of shear rate will produce equal increments of
shear stress, and the system assumes the flow pattern of a Newtonian fluid.
 Fluid Types

Bingham Plastic Fluids

 Fluid Types
Power Law Model

The Power Law model attempts to solve the shortcomings of the Bingham Plastic
model at low shear rates. The Power Law model is more complicated than the
Bingham Plastic model in that it does not assume a linear relationship between
shear stress and shear rate. However, like Newtonian fluids, the plots of shear
stress vs. shear rate for Power Law fluids go through the origin.
 Fluid Types
Power Law Model

This model describes a fluid in which the shear stress increases as a function of the
shear rate mathematically raised to some power. Mathematically, the Power Law
model is expressed as

= Kn

Where:

= Shear stress

K = Consistency index

= Shear rate

n = Power Law index

 Fluid Types

Power Law Model

Plotted on a log-log graph, a Power Law fluid shear stress/shear rate relationship
forms a straight line in the log-log plot. The slope of this line is n and K is the
intercept of this line. The Power Law index n indicates a fluids degree of non-
Newtonian behavior over a given shear rate range.
 Fluid Types

Power Law Model

n = Power Law index or exponent

K = Power Law consistency index or fluid index (dyne secn/cm2)
1 = Mud viscometer reading at lower shear rate
2 = Mud viscometer reading at higher shear rate
1 = Mud viscometer RPM at lower shear rate
2 = Mud viscometer RPM at higher shear rate
 Example Fluid Types
A rotational viscometer containing a non-Newtonaian fluid gives a dial reading of 12
at a rotor speed of 300 rpm and a dial reading of 20 at a rotor speed of 600 rpm.
Determine the rheological model of this fluid in two cases: Bingham model and
Power Law model

Power Law model: