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FEMINISTIKA KNJIEVNA TEORIJA (PRVI DIO)
Priredila Aleksandra Nikevi Batrievi-----------------------------------------------------
Abstract: Linguists and translators rely on research in translation studies, contact and
contrastive linguistics when it comes to successful transfer of structures which are not
equivalent in source and target languages. There is still prevalence of researches which
are focused on trying to establish a system which will be based on binary, contrastive
assignment of features, which should be followed consistently throughout the translation
process. The usage of this quid-pro-quo approach has put aside the cultural dimension(s)
and layers, which inevitably constitute the most intriguing part of the translation process.
This paper will focus on researching the conventional approaches to translation of
linguistically-specific structures in L1 and L2, with particular focus on analysis of
strategies used by the translators: either using or avoiding conventional or prescriptive
norms, which are considered a(n) (un)written must. The basic questions which are going
to be discussed are whether it is possible to find any or some proper measure of using
strategies such as avoidance when dealing with translation of purely linguistic or cultural
issues, and how plausible it is that such strategies actually work successfully.
Introduction
started to involve cultural and linguistic differences (Lrscher 1991, 1996 and
Fraser 1996). Bell (1993) argues that in the translation theory two actions
should be taken: the balance should be redressed through a systematic study of
the process of translation and one has to adopt a descriptive rather than a
prescriptive approach.
Descriptive approaches set forward in two distinctive paths system-
oriented and reception-oriented. Hermans (1999) and Even-Zohar (1990)
emphasize search on determination of norms and constraints which operate
within texts in source and target language. The key concept is explanation of the
relationship between the two texts in terms of manipulations which have
occurred. Therefore, one group of scholars even calls themselves the
Manipulation School (Gideon Toury, Andr Lefevere, Jos Lambert, Theo
Hermans, Susan Bassnett, etc.). Gentzler (2001) vouches for reception-oriented
model, which is based on comparative study of source and target texts which
have already been translated.
Functionalists look at the product of translation as a new act of
communication, with the emphasis on its purposefulness with respect to the
translators client and readership. Reiss and Vermeer (1984) stand at the point
that it is the intended function or aim (skopos) of the source text which
determines translation method(s) and strategies and not the function of the
source text. Nord (1991) puts the emphasis on the interpersonal interaction
which the translation process possesses. She (1991:6) claims that the skopos is
contained in the translation brief, under which she realizes the set of translating
instructions issued by the client when asking for the translation to be made. In
her later works, Nord (1997) makes a note that the skopos rule is a very general
rule which does not account for specific conventions prevalent in a particular
culture community and modifies the theory by adding the concepts of loyalty
and convention.
Culturally-oriented research of Wallmach (2000) puts the emphasis on
specific languages and discourses, cultures and sexualities. Translation studies
have followed the paths of postcolonial translation theory (Bassnett and Trivedi
1999). A concept of linguistic tribalization was used, where people are seen as
belonging to particular language and cultural groups (Snell-Hornby 2000). Venuti
(1995) uses the concepts of resistancy and resistance to refer to the strategy of
translating a literary text in such a way that it retains something of its
foreignness. Derrida (2001) talks about ethnocentric violence of the translation
he calls relevant, and at the same time focuses on its mystification, because the
language is univocal and idiomatic.
Simon (1996) makes a connection between the translation and the
cultural impact of gender and gender-specific influence of culture, thus opening
way to gender-based approaches to translation, whose main interests include
10 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
translation (Ibid, 45-47). As far as translation procedures are concerned, the list he
proposes is wider: transference, naturalization, cultural equivalence, functional
equivalent, descriptive equivalent, componential analysis, synonymy, a near TL
equivalent, through-translation, shifts or transpositions, modulation, recognized
translation, compensation, paraphrase, couplets and notes (Newmark, 1988b,
1991).
Without going into details and explanations of each of the methods and
procedures, one still feels prone to commenting the need for labelling. Why is it
that we all like to have a manual for everything? Why is it necessary to predict
and write down all the instances of issues which occur during the translation
process? One of the answers is that we, as translators, do feel safer if there is
something that we can turn to.
Data Discussion
As is the way with night worries, everything gets exaggerated. (C, 48)
I kako to obino biva nou, sve slutnje izgledaju mnogo crnje. (Z, 48)
Actually I had been going to stay with my old friend John Cavendish,
whose mother, recently remarried, had a country house named
Styles. (C, 1 2)
Applying the basic rules of connection of the head and modifiers, one
has to wonder whether the house named Styles remarried recently, at least
according to the translation given. Again, the prescribed written (or unwritten)
rule of translation of embedded clauses makes us connect them to their head.
Serbian language, in this case, would make the connection with the nearest
noun head because the conjunct a was used. The translator followed the
prescribed rule to the letter when translating the English past perfect
progressive with the Serbian plus-quam-perfect, even though this tense,
together with other past tenses, has a tendency of rare usage in contemporary
Serbian, especially in every day speech. The question which has arisen is why
the same principle had not been used throughout the sentence?
The same can be said for translation of extraposition.
It was at Styles that I had met again that strange little man, Hercule
Poirot, whom I had first come across in Belgium. (C, 2)
U Stajlsu sam tada ponovo sreo tog neobinog oveuljka, Herkula
Poaroa, koga sam prethodno bio upoznao u Belgiji. (Z, 5)
Folia linguistica et litteraria 13
The attempt to follow the topicalization present in the English text has
led to a pretty awkward sentence in Serbian, at least its second part. Word
order of Serbian is free, so the focus of the sentence is not put onto the
prepositional phrase extraposed, i.e. adverbial, but on added adverbial tada
(then), whose trace cannot be found in original. But plus-quam-perfect is again
present, even though very few people would use it, because temporal
relationship is being established by using adverbial prethodno (previously).
The next example illustrates the attitude of the translator towards the
culturally-charged structures.
She was dressed in a neglige of pale eau-de-Nil and was lying on her
chaise lounge. Beside her was a small revolving bookcase-table with the
coffee apparatus set out. He fingers, deft and white, dealt with the
ritual of coffeemaking with some slight aid from Nurse Craven. (C, 139)
Leala je na otomanu, odevena u svetloplavi neglie. Pored nje je stajao
rotacioni stoi koji je ujedno sluio i kao polica za knjige, a na njemu je
stajao pribor za kafu. Njeni okretni beli prsti sami su obavljali itav ritual
pripremanja kafe, uz vrlo skromnu pomo sestre Krejven. (Z, 133 134)
Instead of Conclusion
The beauty lies in establishment of equilibrium of all these. That is the reason for
introducing the notion of interculturality. Culture is inextricably intertwined within
the society and, therefore, into the transfer of social norms. The reader does not
have to know the social norms and conventions of the target culture. It is up to
the translator to make the connection. Temporal and spacial connections have to
be seen within the translation. Vermeer proposes that space for paraculture is the
entire society (Gesamtgesellschaft), for the idioculture the individual (Individuum)
and for the the culture itself the society (Gesellschaft). Still, there seems to be an
empty space open, a space for the translation of intercultural notions. Can we, as
readers, say that a certain translation is good, beautiful, breathtaking,
without involving a highly-personalized and subjective position? Definitely not.
That was not what this paper wanted to emphasize. Let us again go back to
Christiane Nord and her notion that it would be a great help to future translators
to have an exact description of the regulative and constitutive conventions of
translation for the source and target cultures they are working with (Pym 1993:
9). It would be, but would it not be better to leave some space open for the
translators voice to be heard. Pym (1993) has dedicated a chapter of his master
thesis explaining that there is no need for the translators voice to be heard (apart
from the third person), and another chapter to convincing us that linguistics is not
very helpful, and most of the thesis to challenge Newmarks work. Still, Pym
admits that he has learned to appreciate Newmarks postulates through
experience. Coming back to the proposed beginning of this argumentation, the
skopos theory, let us cite Vermeer once again (Baker and Malmkjr 2000: 117):
To translate means to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and
target addressees in target circumstances. There is very little chance that all the
beauty of the source and the target texts will be seen if the focus that there exists
is being put only on prescriptions derived from the source text. The aim of the
translation has, in some circumstances, been set before the actual beginning of
Folia linguistica et litteraria 15
the translation process itself. Knowing the aim or the purpose leaves the door ajar
for highlighting all the nuances deeply interwoven in the source text.
Bibliography:
Abstract: Following a critical discursive approach, this short article investigates frequent
and important linguistic aspects in some of the The Telegraph newspaper articles written
in December 2013 to report on the right of Romanias and Bulgarias citizens to work in
the UK starting from 1 January 2014. The results obtained from a 12,000-word corpus
and their analysis confirmed my initial hypothesis that the use of particular items in
specific contexts is intended to indirectly convey ideological viewpoints and effects on
readers. These citizens are represented as exploiters who will move to the UK to claim
social benefits and the overall imminent situation aims at generating concern and
apprehension about immigration.
Key words: concern, fear, immigration, Romania, Bulgaria, the UK, ideological
viewpoints.
Introduction
Starting from 1 January 2014 the citizens of Romania and Bulgaria have the right
to move to the UK to live and work as all the EU citizens. This situation received
considerable media coverage in the last few months of 2013, but it was also
debated in some political circles in the UK. Both media coverage and political
discussions have been mainly concerned about the social consequences the UK
may suffer from Romanians and Bulgarias citizens moving to the UK. Needless
to say, this concern was also transmitted to people by the media, in some way
or another. We also know that this social reality was inevitably expected to be
reflected in the language media used to inform their audience. And some of the
newspaper articles I had the opportunity to read during that period showed a
tendency to linguistically exaggerate and manipulate the entire story.
Therefore, the main motivation for conducting this short research was to
explore how and by what linguistic means newspaper reports linguistically
manipulate their readers. The central focus was to investigate the ideological
work done related to immigration issues for social and political purposes in the
The Telegraph, a pro-governmental quality newspaper with right-center and
conservative orientation. For this, a small corpus comprising 18 articles was built
to help me conduct quantitative analysis so as to complement the qualitative
discussion in the second part of the paper.
20 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
The analytical framework adopted for the study, the Critical Discourse
Analysis, is briefly discussed in the next section of the paper, where I attempt to
highlight its main principles and its central scope. Research methodology and
the corpus built for the analysis are included in the Method and Corpus section.
The results obtained from the corpus analysis and their discussions make up the
main part of the article. In this part I mainly focus on collocation patterns
between Romania(ns)/Bulgaria(ns) and statistical figures/quantity words.
Keywords and keyness are two additional aspects relevant to the analysis in this
part. The paper ends with some conclusive remarks.
Analytical Framework
The analytical framework adopted in this article is the Critical Discourse Analysis
(CDA) approach which focuses on the relationship between language, power
and ideology and takes full account of the processes of text production,
distribution and consumption (Fairclough 9). In this sense language is seen not
only as a tool which shapes society and is shaped by it, but also as an efficient
instrument to establish certain power relations and to convey overtly particular
ideological stances. So, CDA is particularly interested in the ideological effects
on society and how power relations are affected by texts (25). Aspects of
inequality, domination, marginalization or exploitation through unequal use of
language to the benefit of the powerful and to the detriment of the powerless
are of particular interest to critical discourse analysts, particularly in political
discourse and media discourse. This paper concentrates on the latter and
attempts to identify and examine particular tendencies in the representation of
discourse in newspapers which conforms to ideological viewpoints in the
production of news (54-69) by means of specific linguistic choices.
Reports) used for referential purposes in the text, dates of publications and the
titles of the reports can be found in the appendix A attached to this paper.
This second part of the article aims to present some of the most significant
results obtained during the investigation and discusses in general and specific
terms how they can influence the interpretation of the news articles explored
here. The investigation interweaves qualitative and quantitative analysis mainly
on the micro level to construct a macro-level discussion of potential discourses
constructed in the articles.
First, lexical collocation pattern analyses have been carried out to spot
important combination of co-occurring lexical items with the words
Romania/Bulgaria and Romanian(s)/Bulgarian(s). Frequent occurrences of
patterns in a textual environment are likely to tell us something about meanings
created in relation to their references in a given context and the regularity of
them help us to form an initial hypothesis in meaning similarities in collocation
patterns (Sinclair xvi).
From the concordance analyses one can notice that there are regular
combinations between the abovementioned words and items referring to
general and specific figures related to these immigrants, and although they
amount to about 20 per cent of all instances, they appear in almost all the news
articles considered here. This last fact seems to be significant, since readers are
expected to be exposed almost always to figures related to citizens from
Romania and Bulgaria moving to the UK to work after 1 January 2014. Figure 1
below shows most of the concordance lines for these citizens and the figures or
amount words which collocate with them.
(1) At least 385,000 Romanians and Bulgarians will come to Britain after
restrictions are lifted on January 1 a think tank has warned. (TNR 02)
(2) Politicians from a party known for its xenophobic slogans insist that 29
million Romanians and Bulgarians will invade British shores. (TNR 08)
(3) 33,000 will arrive each year from Romania the Democracy Institute
estimates. (TNR 02)
What is problematic in these instances is the fact that they are based on
predictions or mere speculations, and the figures are offered to the readers as
statistics representing these immigrants in exaggerated numbers which cannot
be proven correct at the time the articles were written. The present context is
probably intended to cause worry and fear among readers by manipulating the
reality in order to cause ideological effects on them.
In the next three examples the aggregation strategy has been used to
avoid an overtly stated excessive number of immigrants who will arrive in the
UK. This strategy allows writers to quantify participants and treat them as
statistics in discourse (Machin and Mayr 83), which is expected to have
ideological implications. As Van Leeuwen points out aggregation is crucial in
many contexts, because it is often used to regulate practice and manufacture
consensus opinion (37).
(4) The mission comes amid concerns of an influx from Romania and
Bulgaria next month after the countries citizens gain unrestricted rights
to work in the UK. (TNR 09)
(5) David Cameron is facing a rebellion from inside the government over
plans to allow an unlimited number of Romanian and Bulgarian
migrants to move to Britain from next year. (TNR 01)
Example (8) draws a parallelism between a previous context and the future one.
Thus, the article represents negatively this state of affairs without providing any
necessary evidence, but which is most likely intended to be offered as a
threatening one based on previous experiences on immigration. In a word,
readers are introduced with a situation similar to the one when there were no
restrictions on immigration and the UK suffered an influx of eastern European
migrants.
3 times and to get, to have and to take advantage of once with each of them,
over a collocation span of -5+5 in the corpus. The following extracts instantiate
two of these co-occurrences.
Example (9) below aims at foregrounding the measures that the
Government has taken in order to extend from one month to three months the
period after which Romanians and Bulgarians will be able to claim social
benefits. Despite this, the problem of immigrants claiming social benefits is
represented as a fact and is expected in a short period of time. In other words,
the process of claiming social benefits is taken for granted, although there
seems to be no evidence to support this, at least not in the passage. This comes
to no surprise, since media reporting sometimes discriminates immigrants and
blames them for abusing social welfare systems to be perceived as a thread
for the Anglo-Saxon culture (Wodak 50).
(9) New arrivals from the two countries will have to wait three months
before they can start claiming benefits, the Government has said.
Currently the rules would allow them to claim benefits after one month.
(TNR 11)
(11) campaigners and many Conservative MPs fear that the relaxation in
the rules will see up to 50,000 migrants moving to Britain from Bulgaria
and Romania every year, undermining the governments target to cut
net migration to the tens of thousands. By Friday evening, 54 Tory
MPs had signed a Commons amendment calling for the existing
restrictions on migrants from Romania and Bulgaria to be extended for
another five years until 2019. (TNR 01)
Conclusive Remarks
Bibliography:
Appendix A
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to compare and contrast uses of be- and get-passives in
order to challenge widely accepted idea that be-passive is used mostly, if not only, in
formal discourse, while get-passive is said to be used in informal discourse. This paper
will also question the claim of most grammarians that passives are the products of
transformation and prove that some passives are to be regarded as original structures.
Furthermore, contrastive analysis of the two passive forms will elucidate when they are
interchangeable or, on the other hand, exclusively dependent on a particular type of verb.
Using the British National Corpus (BNC) I will also examine to what extent the corpus
data conform to what is said in the relevant literature about these two forms of passive.
Special attention will be paid to generic context in order to find out interrelation with
different genres and passive forms, as well as to characteristics of verbs that are used
mostly with be and those used mostly with get. In addition, elliptic forms of passive will
be examined to further illuminate the nature of be- and get-passives by determining their
original full forms.
Key words: be- and get-passive, agent, corpus, by-phrase, elliptic forms, context, genre.
This paper deals with the use of be-passive and get-passive in regard to
context, verb characteristics and structures pertaining to the above. Having in
mind the size of British National Corpus (BNC), I had to restrict the analysis on be-
and get-passives, while other forms are discussed only when closely related to the
mentioned structures. Two opposing views of passive are visible in the literature
overview the first treating passive as a form derived from the original active
structure and the second treating it as a completely independent structure.
Special attention is paid to the verb semantics used with both types of passives.
However, my main focus is get-passive as it has been marginalized and reduced to
informal variant of be-passive and the paper questions the very idea of get-
passive as an informal counterpart of be-passive. The findings will summarize the
results of the contrastive analyses of Get-passive is more common for informal
writing and spoken English be- and get-passive and take a position in relation to
findings within the discussed grammar books. All the above should provide more
insight into occurrence of get-passive, as well as the factors determining its use.
32 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
formal, written English, more than 80 per cent of passives are agentless, and the
figure is undoubtedly higher for colloquial, spoken styles (353). Passives followed
by agent by-phrase are labeled long passives, while agentless passives are labeled
short passives (Biber 935). Tracing the preposition back in the past, it becomes
visible that the agent preposition changed from of to by (Nevalainen 110).
Most linguists, when dealing with the passive, focus on the auxiliary be,
while get-passive is usually treated as colloquial, less formal or even ignored.
Traditional grammar deals only with be-passive, while get-passive is either
heavily disregarded or very briefly categorized as being used in informal English
(Greenbaum & Quirk, 45). The get-passive is also seen as conveying the meaning
that the referent of the subject has some responsibility for the action
(Greenbaum & Quirk, 45). Speaking of the first occurrences of get-passive, Tertu
Nevalainen mentions its sporadic instances in the Early Modern Period, while be-
passive can be traced back to Old English (110-111). In Brjas & Burridge (147),
get passive is mentioned as more colloquial and involves the participation of the
subject. Dixon (357) also mentions the involvement of passive subject in get-
passive and the implication of recent actions when used in get-passive forms.
Although closely related to passive and treated as bare passives by
Huddleston & Pullum (245), causatives are not analyzed in this paper.
The Results
contained a large number of get + PP forms which are not passives, such as the
following examples:
(4) if ever you get rid of this just let me know. (BNC KC3 2850)
(5) We got fed up waiting (BNC FR0 1192)
As in the case of be-passive, I used the entire corpus for specific verbs and
specific or unusual forms, and retrieved 250 random examples of get-passive for
the detailed analysis. Larger number get-passives was necessary in order to end
up with the similar number of both structures analyzed in the paper since half of
the retrieved structures was not passives at all and are illustrated in examples (3)
and (4). Since both strings I used included the verb (be or get), it was obvious that
the elliptic form wasnt going to be included in the data as it contained no
auxiliary verb. I retrieved those using the string _NN1 _VVN.
The be-passive in the corpus is found in 3935 texts with the frequency of
9215.21 instances per million words. Several instances of non-passive structures
(e.g. 280 examples of BE gone) are included, but do not significantly influence
the data. The following table shows the results pertaining to the randomly
chosen 250 000 examples.
Furthermore, about 96.5 per cent of the examples of be-passive are found in
written English. The majority of the writers are from the UK or Ireland (97 per
cent) compared to only 0.6 per cent of USA writers. However, this corpus to a
large extent contains the works of British authors and transcripts of the speech
recorded in the UK, hence I do not analyze the writers/speakers origin.
Out of 200 randomly selected examples for more detailed analysis, four
contained s for is. Although I used {BE} in the search and would expect all s
forms to stand for is, not has, I found example (7) treated as passive, instead of
present perfect. Example (8) looks suspicious since it is ambiguous as to who put
clothes on Tsu Ma. A wider context would substantiate whether he was helped
or not.
(8) If I get home soon I can have summat to eat. I spec Marys left some
food in the cupboard. (BNC A74 2324 )
(9) Tsu Ma was dressed in white, his hair tied back in a single elegant
bow (BNC GUG 2355)
Most common verbs used in passive in the analyzed examples are: make
(4.52 per cent), take (3 per cent), hold (2 per cent), know (1.50 per cent), set
(1.50 per cent), place (1.50 per cent), meet (1.50 per cent), say (1.50 per cent),
give (1.50 per cent), and obtain (1.50 per cent). The number in the brackets
indicates the percentage of the mentioned verb in relation to the 200 selected
examples. To a great extent, the figures match the general findings from the
beginning of this section.
The agent by-phrase is considered by many grammars as optional and,
in this case, it is found in 25 examples. It can be argued that its use largely
depends on the type of text and the semantics of the main verb which follows.
Its distribution regarding the text type is broken down as such:
The agent by-phrase is used in the sentences with the following main
verbs: reveal, subdue, commission, cause, place, take, generate, meet, protect,
pass, attack frustrate, continue, dismiss, carry, serve, contaminate, interview,
prove, accompany, rape, manage and manipulate. According to Dixon (353) 80
per cent of passive in formal writing is agentless and in this analysis, the figure
seems even higher. Out of 44 examples of formal style, by-phrase is found in 6,
which makes 84 per cent of passive in formal writing agentless. In informal
writing, by-phrase is used in 13 per cent of all cases.
Out of 9579 examples of get+PP in the corpus, I randomly chose 250.
When analyzed, it turned out that only 115 were passives, while the other
Folia linguistica et litteraria 37
examples of this structure were phrasal verbs. Combined with different forms of
the verb get (gets, getting or got), the most common combinations were rid of
(49 examples), married (17), fed up with (6), dressed (6), changed (also meaning
dressed 3), involved (5), started (4) and mixed up (meaning confused 3). These
forms are called pseudo-passives (Nevalainen, 111), but are not treated as
passives in this paper. The following example illustrates that this is not a passive
structure.
(10) now you can't get rid of him. (BNC CA3 1550)
On the other hand, some verbs that usually occur in pseudo-passives can
be used as true passives as well. In the examples (9) and (10) feed and marry are
passives and treated as such. In (9) old people are literally fed and in (10), we
may assume that I is the object of both marriage and burial.
(13) he puts the letters into a plastic bag so they won't get eaten by
beetles or woodworm. (BNC G1X 971)
(14) Thou shall not get found out! (BNC CEH 2330)
positive or neutral meaning, all other examples include verbs that imply harm to
the passive subject. These verbs are: burn, damage, crap, sucker, bomb, tear,
slaughter, arrest, shout at, frighten, punish, wheel, sue, bust, poke, kidnap,
overrun, catch, trap, bite, knock over, throw out, crush, drag into, bother, tie,
shoot, kill, leave, eat, blow off, reprimand. Most grammars state that the get-
passive somehow includes the responsibility of the subjects (inanimate subjects
are excluded). Based on this data, it seems that there is an adverse effect on the
subject (Huddleston & Pullum, 245). Even the verbs we wouldnt expect to have
a negative meaning are used as such when combined with get-passive. The
following examples illustrate that: marriage in (14) is not voluntary as is
described in the customs of the Sikhs and the groom is the object of his parents
action. In (15) one soldier is warning the other about the eleventh
commandment not to allow the enemy to find him. In (16) the police stopped
the driver for speeding.
(15) His parents arranged his getting married. (BNC AT4 699)
(16) Thou shall not get found out! (BNC CEH 2330)
(17) You get pulled over by the police. (BNC K1C 821)
As evident from the data, 15.79 per cent of the examples of get-passive
include the agent. It could be due to the fact that get-passive implies the
involvement of the subject, which is in these cases lessened through the explicit
mentioning of the agent.
According to many linguists, get-passive is more common in spoken
English. Considering the disproportion of written and recorded/spoken material
in BNC, 28 per cent of get-passive used in spoken English is a significant number,
which is in accordance with the previous claim.
Another characteristic of get-passive is that it is more common in
informal and colloquial speech. In this analysis I have come across 88 examples
of get-passive structures in informal, 18 in formal and 8 in semi-formal speech,
which means that almost a third of all examples does not belong to informal
speech. Example (17) is taken from the scientific paper about child care and
example (18) is taken from the social science lecture. The use of get-passive in
these and similar examples could be the writers/speakers wish to convey a
more intimate and personal tone with the audience, a proof of their own social
background or a proof that get-passive is more present in academic and formal
English than previously thought.
(18) much violence in the family now involves the police and so gets
recorded as violent crime. (BNC CN6 284)
(19) every bit of it gets written down (BNC JT1 411)
Folia linguistica et litteraria 39
The following table provides more insight into types of texts where the
mentioned structure occurs.
The elliptic passive is not recognized by the search engine in this analysis.
Biber (936) defines it as an element of the non-finite constructions. It can occur in
both long and short passive, as a postmodifier or a premodifier of a noun and as a
verb complement. Brjas & Burridge also claim that passive participles can form
non-finite subordinate clauses with obvious passive meaning (209). The
40 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
examples to illustrate this form of passive are taken from the British National
Corpus.
(20) control unit supervises the operation of the other three
sections of the computer discussed above. (BNC EUS 44)
(21) introduced the risk of dependence upon the fortunes of the
company selected. (BNC ABP 1010)
Using the string _NN1 _VVN, I found 93592 examples of this type of
passive. Although _VVN should stand for past participle, not adjective, there are
examples that are not passives. Their number is not large enough to significantly
influence the findings, but include adjectives or even infinitives as can be seen
from the following examples.
(22) talking earnestly with a burly man dressed in white house-
painter's overalls. (BNC A7A 1362
(23) they would let a young woman come to them on her own!
(BNC J10 2353)
The elliptic passive is not used with by-phrase as much as the other two
discussed in this paper (only 1.60 per cent) and is most commonly found in
academic writing and non-academic prose and biography. On the other hand, it
can be found in poetry. Passives with be and get are nowhere found in poetry in
450 examined examples, while elliptic passive is. The following example is from
the poem called The sirocco room.
(24) I saw a man bent by work (BNC HNX 544)
Further analysis of this form investigates whether it derives from be- or
get-passive. In order to do so, I chose 7 most frequent occurrences and compared
them to be and get combinations. I found out that the mentioned structures are
rarely found in combination with be-passive and never with get-passive. This
finding could also challenge the idea of get-passive being the colloquial variant of
be-passive. The following chart illustrates the findings.
If analyzed separately, without objects, the results reveal that these 7 verbs are
rarely used in get-passive. Considering the fact that I searched the entire corpus,
the occurrences of get combinations are insignificant and in be-passive are
measured in thousands, as can be seen in the following table.
(26) Finally, special attention was paid to staff training (CS7 640)
(27) As the line is paid out, and the kite ascends on the wind gradient
with improving lift (CA1 593)
(28) A lot of people say I'm bloody lucky to get paid for being at
home sick! (KCT 8563)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5 be-passive
0
get-passive
Fiction and verse
Other published
Conversation
Newspapers
Other spoken
Academic writing
and biography
Non-academic
Unpublished
written
Both forms take the agent by-phrase to the similar extent (12.56 per
cent of be-passives and 15.79 per cent of get-passives). According to Brjas &
Folia linguistica et litteraria 43
30
20
10 be
0 get
Conclusion
References:
Biber, Douglas et. al. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow:
Longman, 2007.
Coe, Norman et. al.. Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 2010.
Curzan, Anne & Chris C. Palmer. ''The Importance of Historical Corpora,
Reliability, and Reading'' in Facchinetti, Roberta & Matti Rissanen (eds).
Corpus-based Studies of Diachronic English. Bern: Peter Lang, 2006.
Dixon, R. M. W. A Semantic Approach to English Grammar (second edition).
Oxford: OUP, 2005.
Greenbaum, Sidney & Randolph Quirk. A Student's Grammar of the English
Language. Harlow: Longman, 1990.
Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Hodder. 2004.
Huddleston, Rodney & Geoffrey K. Pullum. A Student's Introduction to English
Folia linguistica et litteraria 45
UDK 811.163.4'366.54
,
:
:
, .
,
.
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-
, . , :
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- , -
.
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1, ,
, , , , . , -
,
, -
.
1.3.
( 1969: 173). ,
1
. , . .
( 1969: 173). . ,
,
(2008: 156).
48 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
-
, - ( 1969: 173).
-
.
,
.
, , -
, -
.
2.1. , -
, - - -
. .
(1995: 8286). .
- -
,
. -
, ,
, (1979: 298299). . -
, + ,
+ + , (2007: 36),
+ , + , + , + , (2007: 38). ,
-
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: , , , , , , , , , , -
, (1969: 173). .
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( 2007: 3132).
. , -
. ,
. , -
,
.
, .
2.3.
-
, (-
2007: 4142).
. -
, , , -
- , -
Folia linguistica et litteraria 49
. ,
, ,
( 1957: 154, 156).
3.1. -
, , , -
, , ,
:
(, 303),
(, 417), . (, 556),
(, 624),
(...) . (, 674), -
(, 235), (...)
. (, 477),
(, 169),
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-
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da.me),
(forum.krstarica.com)...
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- (, 92), -
(, 378), -
. (, 388), ... (-
, 202), , (, 136)
50 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
3.4.
, : -
(, 210).
3.5. -
( 2005:
146-147). , , , 2:
. (,
257), , (, 28),
(, 35),
(, 138), .
(, 76), (blic.rs)...
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(dan.co.me),
(.),
(.), (f-ton.org)
3.8.
, , , :
(.),
1878.
(polimlje.info), ... -
2
, , , ( )
( , , ) (2005: 146147).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 51
4. , , -
.
.
4.1. , , , -
,
(
1957: 151):
(, 262),
(, 253), (, 147),
, (, 113), , ,
. (, 55), -
... (, 67),
(, 15),
(, 167), , ...,
. (, 176)...
4.2. , -
, ,
:
. (, 27), -
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(, 65); (,
75), ,..., ,
. (, 146), , (, 99),
, (, 83),
. (, 38)...
-
:
(, 445), (, 602),
.
4.3. ,
, . -
, :
(, 53), , , .
(, 129), . (, 213), -
52 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
. (, 183),
. (, 181),
10 (forum.cafemonte-
negro.com), . (, 80),
(, 162)...
4.4.
. -
,
:
(, 67),
. (.), ... -
(pobjeda.co.me)...
5. -
- .
: (240). -
-
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.
: ;
; ., -
.
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( : , , , , , -
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, : , , , ) 8 -
( : , -
: , : , , , )
. , -
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).
-
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:
Folia linguistica et litteraria 53
18711872.
UDK 811.163.4367:070(497.16)(091)
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3
1832. ;
1835. ;
(17971800);
1850. , 1866. ;
1871. ,
, 1895. (
, , ,
18711872, , 1983).
56 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
4. 102 408 -
5. , -
703 ( 1975: 548).
: , -
, , , ,
, , : , ,
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-
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6.
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( , 18341934,
, 1934, 34).
5
4 , 3 (32, 36. 38. 1872. )
. 31 x 46 .
1, 192.
1, 48.
( 40. 1872. 30),
. 1871. :
9, 11, 25, 29; 1872. 29, 35, 3740. : 58, 76, 184.
1871. , 164. 1872. . : Ivan Tepavevi,
Crnogorska slika neprijatelja u listu Crnogorac 18711872, Tokovi, 1, Berane, 2010, str. 225.
6
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. : ,
, , , , , ,
, . .
. ,
, , 18711872.
7
: . , (17921794),
, 1968; ,
, , 29/1, , 2000,
287296; ,
( 19. ),
, L, , 2007, 6370.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 57
, -
( 1999: 59). ,
,
( 2000: 288).
, -
, . -
, , . ,
, .
-
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,
.
, ,
.
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1. 8
( 1977, 99117;
1983: 4551; 2000: 287297) -
, , , , ,
, , , , .
, 12. ,
- 1,4,
, , -
2,8, , -
3,12,
8
1871. ,
48 .
58 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
3,12, 3,12, -
4,16, 4,16,
5,20, -
5,20, 5,20,
, , 9,34, -
, 9,36, ,
10,37, .
, 12,48, -
13,52, ... 13,
52, ,
23,89, ,
10,37,
() 10,37, ...
... ... 48,192.
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+ ( ). -
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-.
3,12,
4,16, 6,21,
, ,
6,21, 8,29,
8,29, ,
9,34, -
9,36, ... 12,48,
.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 59
,
... ... ...
... ...
,
... 43,171.
2.
.
, -
XIV
1,3, , -
2,7, ,
, 2,8, ,
,
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5,20,
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12,45,
12,47, , ,
, 13, ,
13,51, ,
14,53, -
, 16,64, -
60 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
27,107, -
29,114, 36,144, ,
,
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, 46,183.
-
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( ).
-
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9
,
, , 1999, . 251.
10
. ,
man-Stze ,
, VII, , 19621963, 96.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 61
, .
( , .),
, , .
, .
:
, , -
, ,
1,3,
, 1,3,
,
3,12, ,
4,13, -
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5,20,
5,20, 14. . . 6,24,
7,28,
8,29, 8,29,
,
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9,36, -
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, 13,52,
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-
. 1858. 16,64, 18,
71, , -
20,80, .
24,96,
, 26,102,
29,113,
, -
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. . ...
62 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
21 ... ...
, , -
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, . .
34,133,
. ,
.
, , , -
35,137, -
-
34, 134, 36,144,
, ,
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40,157, -
47,185, -
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10,40, -
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22,87,
30,119, ,
, 35,138,
40,160,
-
: 1. -
; 2.
; 3. ; 4.
; 5.
; 6.
; 7. -
; 8.
8,32.
-
.
,
.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 63
--
, . -
( , -
, .), -
.
. -
,
( 1990: 72).
,
1,3, , -
6,23,
6,23,
8,32,
, , ,
. -
24,95, -
30,119, -
-
, 32,128,
20,79,
. -
28,112,
48,192.
,
( 2007: 64).
,
:
, ,
. .
. -
... -
... 159
19,73,
.
64 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
. -
. 26 18,69.
-
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19,75, -
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, -
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Folia linguistica et litteraria 65
, ,
. ,
33,132,
...
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. -
... -
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... -
. ...
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... ...
... 50 ...
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-
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.
44,176.
, -
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...
... :
...
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11,4243, :
... ,
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, ...
,
66 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
. ... ,
... ... ... , -
... ... , ... 12,46-47.
4.
. -
,
. -
, -
, , -
. -
, ,
,
, , . -
-
, ,
, , -
.
,
.
, . (1792-1794),
, 1968.
Katni-Bakari, Marina. Lingvistika stilistika, Open Society Institute, Center for
Publishing Development, Electronic Publishing Program, Budapest, 1999.
, .
( 19. ),
, L, , 2007: 63-70.
, . 18341934, ,
1934.
, . man-Stze , -
, VII, , 19621963: 93-98.
, . , -
, , XXVIII (XLVIII), XXXII, 3-4,
, 1975.
, . - -
, ,
XXXIII, 1977: 99-117.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 67
, . -
, -
, XXVI/2, 1983: 45 51.
, . , ,
18711872, , 1983.
, . -
,
, 29/1, , 2000: 287-296.
Tepavevi, Ivan. Crnogorska slika neprijatelja u listu Crnogorac 18711872, To-
kovi, 1, Berane, 2010: 223-254.
, ,
1999.
Ham, Sandra. Pasiv i norma, Jezik, Zagreb, 1990, 65-76.
The paper deals with the use of all types of deagentized sentences
passive, impersonal constructions (impersonalized) and sentences with indefinite
subjects, as well as with their functionality in the paper Crnogorac (The
Montenegrin).
Uvod
svjedok jedne pljake (W) a policajac (P) biljei ono to smatra znaajnim za
istragu:
11
Zvjezdicom su oznaeni pseudonimi i druge izmjene originalnih imena
72 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
12
Odlomak iz transkripta ovog sasluanja preuzet iz Gudjonsson, G. H. 2003. The Psychology of
Interrogations and Confessions.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 73
head? Pitanja kojima se trai nova informacija jesu ona koja zahtijevaju nara-
tivan odgovor (pr. wh-pitanja: What made you do it?). Pitanja koja slue utvri-
vanju motiva za izvrenje krivinog djela razlikuju se po svom obrascu od pitanja
kojima se utvruje poznavanje detalja. U prvom sluaju, pitanja koriste obrasce
tipine za pitanja kojima se trai nova informacija da bi se potvrdila neka pozna-
ta injenica. To znai da, za razliku od sluaja kada se pokuava utvrditi motiv,
gdje ispitiva moda i nema jasnu predstavu o motivu dok mu osumnjieni sam
ne prui potrebnu informaciju, u ovom drugom sluaju ispitiva mora znati (ili
mora imati mogunost da precizno utvrdi) odgovor na pitanja koja postavlja osu-
mnjienom. Ako, na primjer, ispitiva treba da pita: koliko puta si ga ubo no-
em? ili po kojim mjestima na tijelu?, tanost odgovora koji osumnjieni daje
moe se utvrditi njegovim poreenjem sa injenicama koje su policajcu koji oba-
vlja sasluanje ve poznate.
Pitanja koja su formulisana tako da bi se dobili podaci o tome koliko
osumnjieni poznaje detalje u vezi sa zloinom ne moraju se fokusirati na one
stavke koje su od presudnog znaaja za konkretan sluaj da bi ona bila efikasna
u postizanju svog cilja. Sposobnost osumnjienog da ispria tano i neke trivija-
lne, svakidanje detalje moe biti dovoljna. Stoga, policajci koji obavljaju saslu-
anje esto neumorno ponavljaju pitanja o nekim nevanim stvarima kako bi do-
li do dokaza o postojanju takvog znanja.
Sljedei primjer preuzet je iz transkripta sa sasluanja iz jednog sluaja
koji je kasnije poniten zbog nedostatka odgovarajuih dokaza koji bi poduprili
jedno neuvjerljivo priznanje koje je osumnjieni prethodno dao. Osumnjieni je,
nakon tri dana sasluavanja, tokom kojih je poricao svoju umijeanost u zloin,
konano priznao ubistvo jedne djevojice:
13
howay je sleng termin u znaenju come on esto u upotrebi na sjevero-istoku Engleske
74 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
P: How did you try to have sex with her? How did you try to
have sex
with her?
S: Same way everybody has sex.
P: . . . you didnt try to have sex with her, did you George?
S: No.
P: Did that kill her George, with the brick? George, it didnt did
it, George? There is more isnt there George?
P: Howay you have told us there was blood all over the place,
what else did you do? George, we know whats happened, we
know whats happened. So you know you are not holding
anything back by not telling us, George what else did you do?
George howay son, just finish it off and tell us what else you did.
George.
S: Went to throttle her.
P: You went to throttle her, what with?
S: Me hands.
P: But you hit her with something else didnt you?
S: Probably, I cant remember.
P: George think, I know its not very nice son but just think what
else
Folia linguistica et litteraria 75
- Pitanje: Ok, and what else did you take from her residence? Pretpo-
stavlja da je osumnjieni uzeo jo neto to nije prethodno pomenuo.
Pored pitanja koja sadre odreenu pretpostavku, jedan drugi tip pita-
nja se vrlo esto javlja u navedenim primjerima, a to su tzv. upitne fraze ili tag
questions. Ova pitanja ponekad se opisuju kao pitanja kojima se sprovodi najvei
stepen kontrole (Woodbury 1984). Informacija data u takvom pitanju opet nije
potpuno eksplicitna, ali svakako usmjerava osumnjienog koji eli da sarauje i
da se povinuje policijskim tenjama za dobijanjem priznanja, prema specifinom
poznavanju konkretne situacije i detalja koji se od njega zahtijevaju da ih verba-
lno saopti, kako bi odreeni sluaj bio potkrijepljen valjanim dokazima. Tako
imamo primjer u kojemu se policajac slui upitnim frazama da navede osumnji-
enog da kae na koji je tano nain ubio rtvu:
P: But you did something else to her didnt you, you say with a piece of
metal, what did you do? Now you did something with that piece of
metal didnt you the body has been examined George, we know
exactly what happened, if youre telling the truth just tell us what then
happened.
Ferklaf (46) skree panju na upotrebu i znaaj odrinih pitanja i upitnih fra-
za u diskursu neravnopravnih uesnika i kae da, u zavisnosti od intonacije i drugih
faktora, ovakva pitanja mogu da znae sljedee: ,,ja pretpostavljam da se radi o X
ali vi kao da tvrdite neto drugo, a to sigurno nije tako? U kontekstu sasluanja
osumnjieni treba da zna da stvari ne stoje onako kako on tvrdi, pa postavljanje
ovakvih pitanja, kae Ferklaf, predstavlja nain na koji se osoba koja je superiornija
u diskursu pomalo ruga onoj drugoj. Ferklaf je ovu upotrebu objasnio u primjeru ra-
zgovora izmeu profesora i studenta ali se taj sluaj moe lako poistovjetiti sa dru-
gim, slinim kontekstima, kao to je i ovaj o kojemu mi govorimo.
Odgovarajui na pitanja, osumnjieni prua sljedeu informaciju: I went to
throttle her. Tu novu informaciju ispitivai ne odbacuju, ali jasno pokazuju da to nije
ono to su traili ve da treba da kae neto drugo: But you hit her with something
else didnt you?. Osumnjieni zatim kae kako se ne sjea, ali nakon daljeg ,,podsti-
canja od strane policije on kae sljedee: I hit her with my fist. Ispitivai ipak na-
stavljaju da tragaju za eljenom informacijom i kada osumnjieni, nakon vie pitanja
what else?/ something else?, navede da je to bilo pare metala piece of metal,
ispitiva reaguje drugaije i ponavlja rijei osumnjienog. Ovaj primjer ispitivanja
tipian je za tzv. ,,trostranu razmjenu o kojoj govori Beri (Berry 1987) u kontekstu
interakcije u uionici.
Teacher can you tell me why do you eat all that food. Yes? (initiation)
Pupil to keep strong (response)
Teacher to keep strong, yes to keep you strong (feedback) (Berry
1987: 4647)
Folia linguistica et litteraria 77
*
P: What else? Howay George you used something else didnt you,
George?
We know howay, George, what else did you do? Come on. (initiation)
Prema Berijevom opisu, tipini djelovi interakcije ovog tipa jesu: posta-
vljanje pitanja, odgovor i povratna informacija (1. initiation, 2. response 3. Feed-
back). Ono to je zajedniko u oba konteksta jeste da osoba koja postavlja pi-
tanje ima poziciju autoriteta, da ta osoba unaprijed zna taan ili makar poeljan
odgovor i da se eljeni odgovor daje kao povratna informacija ueniku, odnosno
osumnjienom, kao potvrda da je dati odgovor taan.
Prikazaemo, na kraju, i jedan ekstreman primjer navoenja osumnjie-
nog da da eljenu informaciju. Radi se o odlomku sa sasluanja Dejvida Vaskeza
(David Vasquez), mentalno zaostale osobe, uhapenog, a zatim i osuenog za si-
lovanje i ubistvo jedne ene u Virdiniji, 1985. godine. Vaskez je, iz straha od
smrtne kazne, priznao ubistvo. Meutim, 1989. godine, sud je ponitio presudu i
oslobodio ga svake krivice.
Detective 1: Did she tell you to tie her hands behind her back?
Vasquez: Ah, if she did, I did.
Detective 2: Whatcha use?
Vasquez: The ropes?
Detective 2: No, not the ropes. Whatcha use?
Vasquez: Only my belt.
Detective 2: No, not your belt... Remember being out in the sunroom,
the room that sits out to the back of the house? ...and what did you cut
down? To use?
Vasquez: That, uh, clothesline?
Detective 2: No, it wasn't a clothesline, it was something like a
clothesline. What was it? By the window? Think about the Venetian
blinds, David. Remember cutting the Venetian blind cords?
Vasquez: Ah, it's the same as rope?
Detective 2: Yeah.
Detective 1: Okay, now tell us how it went, David -- tell us how you did
it.
Vasquez: She told me to grab the knife, and, and, stab her, that's all.
Detective 2: (voice raised) David, no, David.
78 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Vasquez: If it did happen, and I did it, and my fingerprints were on it...
Detective 2: (slamming his hand on the table and yelling) You hung her!
Vasquez: What?
Detective 2: You hung her!
Vasquez: Okay, so I hung her.14
14
http://www.aclu.org/capital-punishment/mentally-retarded-death-row-exonerations
Folia linguistica et litteraria 79
P: But you knew she was dead didnt you. George didnt you didnt you
son.
Eh didnt you George. George come on, come on it will be better when it
is
all out. Didnt you, you knew then she was dead, didnt you son.
S: YES.
*
15
Ovaj razgovor snimljen je na sjevero-istoku Engleske gdje se rije son esto koristi kada se stariji
mukarac obraa mlaem. Transkript ovog razgovora preuzet je iz Holovog lanka (Hall, 2008: 89).
80 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
P: It was just, just too much for you to deal with at the moment.
And it was just overwhelming.
S: Thats a hard thing to understand.
P: No, no its not. Its hard to admit, sure, but its not hard to
understand.
Zakljuak
Bibliografija:
Auburn, T., Drake, S. & Willig, C. You punched him, didnt you?: Versions of
violence in accusatory interviews. Discourse and Society 6 (3), 1995:
353386.
Baldwin, J. Police interview techniques: Establishing truth or proof. British
Journal of Criminology 33 (3), 1993: 325352.
Berry, M. Is teacher an unanalysed concept?, New Developments in Systemic
Linguistics, Vol. 1: Theory and Description, M. A. K. Halliday & R. P.
Fawcett (eds.), London: Frances, 1987.
Drew, P. Asymmetries of knowledge in conversational interactions. In K. Foppa i
I. Markova (eds.), Asymmetries in Dialogue. Hemel Hempstead:
Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991 21-48.
Drew, P. and Heritage, J. Talk at Work: Interaction in institutional settings.
Cambridge: CUP, 1992.
Fairclough, Norman. Language and Power. London: Longman, 1989.
82 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
1. Uvod
ivotna pouka koju djeca mogu uti od svojih roditelja glasi: Sve se moe oprati
sem prljav obraz. Moramo priznati da ovo naravouenije u ranom dobu razvoja
djeluje nejasno, zbunjujue, poto je leksema prljav,-a,-o, djetetu pojmovno bli-
a stanju zaprljanosti, njegovom osnovnom, primarnom znaenju, a ne pojmu
moralne nedolinosti, kao prenesenom, sekundarnom znaenju. Naravno, u pro-
cesu sazrijevanja, mlai narataji bivaju prosvijetljeni punim znaenjem ove pou-
ke i uoavaju da se u sluaju ovog pridjeva odnos primarnog i sekundarnog zna-
enja u pogledu njihove frekventnosti poravnao, ako ne i znatno promijenio u
korist sekundarnog, prenesenog znaenja.
Dominacija navedenog prenesenog znaenja za pridjev prljav,-a,-o ogle-
da se i u promjenama znaenja nekih drugih leksema koje Dragievi (2010) na-
vodi u svojoj knjizi Leksikologija srpskog jezika:
16
U ovom sluaju bilo bi veoma uputno razmiljati o kritici ovakvih promjena i njihovom praenju.
17
Potiranje sinonimnosti, u vidu potiskivanja, vidi se i u nekoliko sluajeva postepene prevage
strane rei ili stranog uzora nad domaima: egzil, izgnanstvo; reptil, gmizavac; ke, gotovina;
informacija, obavetenje; demantovati, opovrgnuti; kratka pria (doslovnim prevoenjem
engleskog short story), pripovetka; ohrabrivati (neadekvatnim tumaenjem jednog od znaenja
engleskog encourage), podsticati (Dragievi 2010).
18
U prilog prethodno navedenom uticaju anglicizama i na crnogorski jezik naveu jedan primjer iz
nastavne prakse. Naime, na pitanje postavljeno studentima kako da prevedu rije gas iz engleskog
jezika na na, oni su i pored oiglednog konteksta, koji je upuivao na znaenje gorivo za datu rije
gas u engleskom jeziku, izabrali istu rije gas (ova jezika pojava poznata je u engleskom jeziku kao
false friends). Ovu problematiku je i Kaasinen (2012) opisala u svom radu koji ukazuje na uticaj tzv.
false friends-lanih prijatelja (nastalih usljed navedenih jezikih promjena, kao posljedica
interferencije jezika davaoca na jezik primaoca) u tumaenju ekspirove drame Twelfth Night.
Crystal (2009) je takoe izuavao jezik ekspirovih drama, obraajui panju upravo na prisustvo
prethodno pomenute jezike pojave poznate pod nazivom lani prijatelji. Slinu tematiku obrauje
i Budini (2010) u svom radu o semantikim ekstenzijama leksema preuzetih iz engleskog jezika, i
to na primjeru sportske leksike, npr. set, corner, singl, draft, itd.
19
Uticaj stranog jezika na proirenje znaenja rijei u jeziku primaocu izuavao je i Pintari (2011),
ispitujui prisustvo germanizama u varadinsko-kajkavskom dijalektu.
20
Gortan-Premk (2004) takoe tvrdi da svaka leksema ima svoj osnovni semantiki sadraj,
osnovno znaenje, dok sekundarna znaenja lekseme nastaju semantikim transformacijama ovih
obiljeja. Stoga Gortan-Premk (2004) razlikuje etiri vrste transformacija, odnosno etiri tipa
semantike disperzije: platisemiju, metonimiju, sinegdohu i metaforu.
21
O metafori, metonimiji i sinegdohi opirnije u Lakoff and Johnson (1980); Johnson (1987); Lakoff
(1987); Radden and Kvecses (1999); Radden (2000); Barcelona (2000a); Ronberg (1990); Panther
and Thornburg (2003); Deignan (2005); Kovaevi (2009).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 87
ajeno i kada nije sasvim jasno da li je neko od njih posebno ili je samo specija-
lan sluaj nekog proirenja.22 Upravo zato emo u narednom poglavlju ukazati
na neke od uzroka promjena i proirenja znaenja.
22
Preuzeto iz Budini (2010).
23
Radi-Bojani i Silaki (2012) istraivale su metaforine i metonimijske konceptualizacije pojma
glava u srpskom jeziku i pojma head u engleskom jeziku.
24
Za detaljni prikaz semantikih promjena vidi Shindo (2009) i Dirvens i Porings (2006).
25
Upravo su navedeni lingvistiki uzroci jezikih promjena (proirenja znaenja leksema) tema
naeg istraivanja.
26
Na primjer, rije pencil potie iz latinskog jezika u znaenju pero ili tanka etkica, meutim, ista
rije je zadrana i kasnije kada se za pravljenje ovih pisaljki poelo koristiti drvo, tako da sada
imamo dananje grafitne olovke oznaene ovom istom rijeju pencil.
27
Nyota and Mareva (2012) ilustruju uticaj ulinog argona na standarni jezik, pri tome opisujui
veliki broj urbanih dijalekata koji predstavljaju kombinaciju standardnog jezika Zimbabvea i
engleskog kao stranog jezika.
88 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
3. Metodologija istraivanja
28
Vidi Gareearts (2009).
29
Moramo istai da postoje izvjesne razlike u predstavljenom kolokativnom metodu i nainu na
koji smo mi analizirali kolokacijsko okruenje. Naime, u kolokativnom metodu Hlebeca (2007)
Folia linguistica et litteraria 89
insistira se na analizi svih moguih znaenja date lekseme, dakle na punoi njene
polisemantinosti, dok se u naoj analizi insistira na uestalosti kolokacijskog okruenja, to
naravno podrazumijeva ogranien broj moguih znaenja analiziranih leksema.
30
Sun, Huang & Liu (2011) u svom istraivanju priblinih sinonima istiu da je dovoljno navesti
etiri kolokacije, kako bi se izbjeglo analiziranje velikog broja svih moguih kolokacija. Upravo iz
istog razloga i mi smo se odluili za isti broj kolokacija i to najuestalijih kako bi rezultati
istraivanja bili validniji.
31
Piits (2010) potvruje polaznu hipotezu da zajednike kolokacije pridruene datim rijeima
ukazuju na sljedee leksike veze: sinonimija, antonimija, hiperonimija itd. Na osnovu korpusa
estonskog jezika, koji je analiziran programom WordSmith Tools, sakupljeno je 30 najuestalijih
rijei koje se pojavljuju lijevo i desno od glavne rijei. Za potrebe ovog istraivanja, a po samoj
prirodi pridjeva, kao vrste rijei, analizirane su samo kolokacije desno od glavne rijei i to runo,
bez upotrebe specijalizovanih programa za analizu korpusa.
32
Veliki broj istraivaa koristio je internet mreu kao korpus analize. Inkpen (2004) je koristila
interenet mreu kao korpus u svojim istraivanjima koja su rezultirala osmiljavanjem statistikog
modela prilikom izbora priblinih sinomima; Grefenstette (1999) je koristio intrenet mreu (Web)
za istraivanje mainskog prevoenja, zasnovanog na specifinim primjerima; Kilgariff (2001) je
istraivao razliite vrste buke na osnovu podataka s mree; Mihalcea i Moldovan (1999), kao i
Agirre i Martinez (2000) koristili su mreu kao dodatni izvor za potrebe razlikovanja znaenja
90 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Tabela 1
Tabela 2
meu rijeima; Resnik (1999) je koristio mreu za istraivanje bilingvalnih tekstova. Keller i Lapata
(2003) prikazuju da su podaci s mree u skladu s podacima preuzetih iz drugih relevantnih
korpusa. U sluaju ovog istraivanja, analiza upotrebom internet mree (Web) bila je neophodna
poto jo uvijek ne postoje elektronski korpusi crnogorskog jezika.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 91
Tabela 3
33
Tabela 4
[+MUKOIVOODRASLO]
Opisni pridjev prljav:
1) Ve [+ISPRLJAN]
2) Novac [+STEEN NA NELEGALAN NAIN]
3) Posao [+NELEGALAN+NEHIGIJENSKI]
4) Rat [+PROFITERSKI+HEMIJSKO NAORUANJE]
[-MUKOIVOODRASLO]
Opisni pridjev prljava:
1) Kampanja [+NEPOTENA]
2) Igra [+NEPOTENA]
3) Tehnologija [+NEZDRAVA]
4) La [+TEKA]
[MUKOIVO-ODRASLO]
Opisni pridjev prljavo:
1) Rublje [+ISPRLJANO]
2) Posue [+ISPRLJANO]
3) Lice [+ISPRLJANO]
4) Staklo [+ISPRLJANO]
33
Prilikom utvrivanja najuestalijeg kolokacijskog okruenja pridjeva na engleskom jeziku
koriten je sajt www.justtheword.com. Ovo je sajt iji se podaci, prilikom utvrivanja kolokacijskog
okruenja odreenih leksema, oslanjaju na Britanski nacionalni korpus.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 93
[MUKOIVOODRASLO]
Opisni pridjev dirty:
1) Trick [+NEPOTEN]
2) Water [+ZAGAENA]
3) Job [+NELEGALAN+NEPOTEN]
4) Man [+NEMORALAN]
Nakon utvrivanja znaenjskih obiljeja pridjeva prljav,-a,-o u crnogorskom je-
ziku i pridjeva dirty u engleskom jeziku, pristupilo se njihovom kontrastiranju.
4. Zakljuak
34
Detaljiniji prikaz pronai u dijelu o komponentnoj analizi.
35
M. Radi-Dugonji (1999: 65) slijedei tradiciju ruske leksikologije, naglaava da ni sve
diferencijalne seme nisu na istom hijerarhijskom nivou. U semantikoj strukturi lekseme ona
razlikuje semantiko jezgro i semantiku periferiju. Semantiko jezgro se sastoji iz arhiseme i jedne
ili vie diferencijalnih sema koje su joj u hijerarhijskoj semskoj strukturi neposredno potinjene.
Arhisema i najvanije seme pomau identifikaciji lekseme i zato se taj semski kompleks zove
identifikator. Sve ostale seme ine semantiku periferiju (Dragievi 2010: 71).
36
Odreena doza objektivnosti se ogleda u injenici da smo prilikom odreivanja semantikih
obiljeja analiziranih primjera konsultovali elektronske korpuse (Korpus savremenog srpskog jezika
i Britanski nacionalni korpus), ijem smo kontekstu upotrebe saobraavali nae opise.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 95
to nije sluaj s opisnim pridjevom dirty u engleskom jeziku, u kojem se, kako
smo ve naveli ne primjeuje prisustvo gramatikog roda. Na primjer:
prljav: 37ve (4820)38; novac (15000); posao (51900); rat (1910) (tabela
1),
prljava: kampanja (26000); igra (42000); tehnologija (2120); la (8680)
(tabela 2), prljavo: rublje (29900); posue (6790); lice (2650); staklo
(3700) (tabela 3).
37
Najuestalija etiri kolokata na osnovu podataka sakupljenih iz Korpusa Matice srpske.
38
Broj konkordanci pridjeva sa navedenim kolokatima analiziranih na korpusu www.google.com
(stranice iz Crne Gore).
39
Metaforina proirenja znaenja pridjeva analizirali su Persson (1989) istraivanjem razlika
meu priblinim sinonimima deep i profound i zakljuili da uz razliite kolokate ovi pridjevi imaju
razliito znaenje. Deep kolocira s rijeima koje izraavaju afektivnost, ubjeenje, osjeanja,
aljenje, zadovoljstvo, tugu Dok profound kolocira s rijeima kojima se izraava razliitost,
neukus, efekat, neuspjeh, uticaj Imajui u vidu njihovu metaforinost oni mogu znaiti poziciju s
jedne strane ili dubinu s druge strane. Samo deep sadri metaforu pozicije, ali kvalitet dubine
moe se izraziti upotrebom oba izraza.
40
Prema Apresian-u (1995), jedan od produktivnih naina za nastajanje sinonima jeste stvaranje
sekundarnih znaenja leksema, prije svega metaforikih i metonimijskih. Sekundarno znaenje
jedne lekseme moe biti sinonimno s primarnim ili sekundarnim znaenjem druge (lekseme zlato i
aneo mogu biti kontekstualni sinonimi kada u svojim sekundarnim znaenjima oznaavaju dijete;
govoriti i gukati su sinonimi kada gukati znai govoriti. Oigledno je da se izvorita sinonimije
ukrtaju, pa isti primjer moemo navoditi za vie modela nastajanja (Dragievi 2010).
96 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Literatura:
41
I Darinka-Gortan-Prenk (1997) slae se da svaka leksema ima svoj osnovni semantiki sadraj,
osnovno znaenje, dok sekundarna znaenja lekseme nastaju semantikim transformacijama ovih
obiljeja. Ona razlikuje etiri vrste transformacija, odnosno etiri tipa semantike disperzije:
platisemiju, metonimiju, sinegdohu i metaforu.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 97
Abstract: This paper offers insight the into the use of the experiential present perfect in
Stephenie Meyers novel Twilight and its translation equivalents in its Serbian
counterpart. The authors explore various types of the present perfect and present the
findings of the frequency analysis to show whether similar linguistic devices are used to
convey meaning in English and Serbian. The corpus is comprised of 36 examples of the
present perfect in English and their Serbian equivalents. Because of the differences in the
inherent lexical-aspectual interaction in the two languages, it is concluded that a vast
majority (94%) of the examples of the present perfect are translated into Serbian by using
the plain perfect form.
1. Introduction
The categories of tense and aspect will be defined and described in order
to confirm the postulate that the Present Perfect is related to verb aspect rather
than verb tense, as it was often maintained in a variety of traditional grammar
books. It is generally held that there are four types of the Present Perfect: the
Resultative Present Perfect, the Experiential Present Perfect, the Present Perfect
for Recent Past and the Present Perfect for Persistent Situation (Comrie, 1976). As
the Experiential Present Perfect is our subtype of interest, the examples obtained
from the corpus will mostly belong to this specific type of the Present Perfect.
However, the authors will refer to other types of the Present Perfect if it is
difficult to clearly determine the exact type of the perfect used. The paper will
attempt to show that, despite the fact that it is often very hard to differentiate
amongst the various types of the present perfect, it can often be concluded that
the given examples belong to the Experiential Perfect type.
that verb aspect can be interpreted as determining the scope or diameter of the
verbal situation (Novakov, 2008)
This type of the Present Perfect is used to describe past situations which
entail temporal closeness, i.e. the situations which occurred in recent past. The
sentence John has just left describes a past situation which occurred a few
moments before the moment of the utterance.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 103
4. Corpus
In order to test the similarities and differences between the English and
Serbian and explore the use of the experiential present perfect and its translation
equivalents in the Serbian language, the authors used corpus-based research. The
104 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
5. Corpus Analysis
3. You know, I've never seen him sit with anyone but his family before.
That was weird. (T54)
Zna, nikad pre ga nisam videla da sedi ni sa kim osim sa svojima. Ba je
to bilo udno. (S107)
4. I've never noticed before your hair has red in it. (T69)
Nikad to pre nisam primetio kosa ti je blago crvenkasta. (S137)
5. I've never tried to keep a specific person alive before, and it's much
more troublesome... (T83)
Nikada pre nisam neku konkretnu osobu nastojao odrati u ivotu, a to
je daleko napornije... (S166)
The given examples illustrate the use of the experiential present perfect
with the adverbial never, which shows absence of experience. Such examples
have been translated into Serbian by using perfect verbal forms, with a
corresponding Serbian translation of the word never (nikad/nikada)
The adverbial before is used together with the verbal form in the perfect
aspect in order to show the presence or absence of a particular experience until
the present moment. In the last example there is a combination of two
adverbials never and before.
9. Calm down, Bella. His voice was cold. We've been there before.
(T180)
Smiri se, Bella. Glas mu je bio hladan. Nee nam to biti prvi put.
(S366)
10. Haven't you ever seen snow fall before? he asked incredulously. (T20)
Zar nikad jo nisi videla kako pada sneg? (S37)
This example illustrates the use of adverbials ever and never for the
experiential present perfect in order to stress the presence or absence of certain
experience. The given example has also been translated into Serbian by a perfect
form.
All of the examples above show that the experiential present perfect is
most commonly used with adverbials ever and never, in order to describe and
accentuate the presence or absence of certain experience until the present
moment. All of the examples of the present perfect were translated into Serbian
by using a perfect form.
24. Yes the female has been in town... She hasn't gone near him, so don't
be afraid. (T197)
Da ena je bila u gradu... Nije mu se ni pribliila, ne boj se. (S400)
25. I haven't had one speck of trouble from any one of them. (T19)
Nisam imao ni trunice problema ni s jednim od njih. (S35)
This particular example is very similar to the previous one, where the
context allows us to determine that this is the case of a possession of a
particular experience or not, and not the perfect of the recent past. It is
essential to note the importance of the context when determining the types of
the present perfect.
Other examples
This example illustrates the use of the Present Perfect for an experience
which is not a lifetime experience, but rather experience related to today only.42
In other words, the present perfect is used in this case to describe a situation
42
This additional use was described by Geoffrey Leech (2004:39).
108 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
which has been going on in the period until the present moment, i.e. the
experience that an individual gained in the period until now.
28. What does that mean? My voice quavered, and I fought to control it.
That he hasn't called yet?
ta to znai? glas mi je zadrhtao, i s naporom sam ga obuzdala. To to
jo nije nazvao? (S392)
The examples with the adverbial yet typically illustrate other types of the present
perfect, but in certain instances, it can be claimed to represent the experiential
perfect, as is the case with the example given above. The context helps to
understand it as an example of the experiential perfect (with the meaning of the
lack of experience).
It has to be stressed that in this particular example the Serbian equivalent
provided by the translator might not be the best translation option. In the
translation of this sentence there is a loss of meaning, as the translator must have
misunderstood and misinterpreted the question. A revised translation of this
particular sentence could be Da jo nije nazvao?. The solution provided by the
translator ignores the meaning of the previous question What does it mean?, as
the second question is a continuation of the first question.
23. I don't know. Something is missing another decision hasn't been made
yet. (T196)
Ne znam. Neto nedostaje neka druga odluka nije jo donesena. (S398)
24. I haven't seen any lately, but I'll keep my eyes open for you. (T58)
Nisam videla nijedan u zadnje vrijeme, ali imau to na umu. (S116)
Folia linguistica et litteraria 109
This particular example proves that the experiential perfect does not
have to be used solely with the adverbials such as ever, never and before, but
that this can be done by using other adverbials such as lately. This particular
adverbial does not have to be used only with the perfect of the recent past, but
can, as shown above, be used in relation with experience that an individual has
or does not have in the recent past.
31. You haven't asked me the most important question yet. (T88)
Jo mi nisi postavila najbitnije pitanje. (S177)
32. You know, I haven't forgiven you for the Tyler thing yet. (T101)
Zna, nisam ti jo oprostila ono s Tajlerom. (S203)
The use of the experiential perfect with other adverbials, e.g. yet has
already been mentioned. Although it initially seems to exemplify another type
of perfect, it can be maintained that it is the case of the experiential perfect if
we refer to the co-text.
33. I haven't had to wait at all. Why should I get off so easily? (T143)
Ja uopte nisam morala da ekam. Zato bih se ja tako lako izvukla?
(S292)
35. We've been on the hunt all the way down from Ontario, and we
haven't had the chance to clear up in a while. (179)
Lovimo celim putem skroz od Ontarija, pa ve neko vreme nismo dobili
priliku da se malo sredimo. (363)
form, its progressive form is typically translated by using the Serbian present
tense. The aforementioned example actually does have the properties of the
present perfect progressive, as Weve been on the hunt could easily be
understood and paraphrased as Weve been hunting. This means that the
translators tense of choice was not only justified but also eligible.
36. Let Charlie see you haven't kidnapped me, and lead this James on a
wild-goose chase. (183)
Daj da Charlie vidi kako me nisi oteo, i povedi tog Jamesa na krivi trag.
(372)
This example can be taken to represent both the perfect of result and
experiential perfect. The sentence You haven't kidnapped me can refer to
either the fact that there is no result of the kidnapping at the present
moment, or that a specific individual has not been kidnapped until the present
moment. i.e. that there is the absence of the experience of being kidnapped.
Of the total of 36 examples of the experiential present perfect in
Meyers novel in English and their translation equivalents in Serbian, 34 were
translated by using the perfect verb form (94%), one was translated by using the
present tense (2.8%) and one by using a future form (2.8%). Most of the
examples of the experiential present perfect in English were used with the
typical adverbials such as ever, never and before (61%). There were five
instances of this type of perfect used without any adverbials (14%), 4 examples
used with a non-typical adverbial yet (11%) while 5 examples (14%) were
borderline cases which could be interpreted as belonging to the category of the
experiential present perfect.
5. Conclusion
It was the aim of this paper to describe and analyze the use of the
Present Perfect and its Serbian translation equivalents. The obtained results
showed that the author of the translation most commonly chose to translate
the Present Perfect with perfect forms in the Serbian language (94%). There is
only one instance in which the present perfect was translated by using a future
form, which can be easily explained when we know that the given example was
an idiomatic expression whose elements could not be translated separately and
literally. Corpus analysis also confirmed the inner complexity and overlap
between the different types of the present perfect, as it was often difficult to
precisely determine the type of the present perfect in question. At times, it was
an easy task, especially when adverbials such as ever, never and before were
present. However, it was observed that there were borderline cases. i.e.
examples in which there were no adverbials or examples with adverbials other
Folia linguistica et litteraria 111
than those typically associated with the experiential present perfect. In those
cases, the context played an essential role in selecting the correct category for
classification.
References:
43
: ,.84.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 115
Literatura:
Apstrakt: Leksika predstavlja jednu od najvanijih komponenti uenja nekog jezika, bilo
maternjeg ili stranog. Koliko god uspjeno da je savladao gramatiku ili glasove nekog
stranog jezika, bez znanja rijei koje su nosioci znaenja, a samim tim i sutinskog
sadraja poruke, ovjek ne moe da ostvari istinsku, smisaonu komunikaciju na tom
jeziku. Cilj ovog rada je da ukae na inioce koji su od vanosti kada su u pitanju
osmiljavanje i organizacija nastave i uenja leksike stranog (u ovom sluaju, engleskog)
jezika. U radu je dat detaljni pregled odnosa meu rijeima, kao i niz vrlo korisnih
konkretnih ideja koje su pogodne za uenje i nastavu leksike stranog jezika u formalnim
uslovima, odnosno u uionici.
Light/heavy bag
Light/strong wind
Light/dark colours
Rough/calm sea
Rough/smooth texture
Rough/quiet area
Rough/gentle person
Rough/precise calculation. (McCarthy 1998: 19)
122 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
44
Primjeri koje navodi Bugarski (1996: 212) da ilustruje homonimiju u srpskom jeziku su: kosa (na
glavi i za koenje), biti (postojati i tui).
45
Ili u srpskom jeziku rije krilo (ptice, aviona, prozora, zgrade, u fudbalu). Bugarski (1996:212).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 123
Gotovo svi primjeri odnosa meu rijeima koji su navedeni u ovom krat-
kom pregledu ukazuju na to da je jezik organizovan na semantikom principu;
stoga bi moda i nastavu leksike stranog jezika trebalo organizovati na slinom
principu. Poznato je da su nastavnici nekada insistirali na pravljenju lista sa rije-
ima; danas se, meutim, naglaava potreba za prezentacijom rijei u kontekstu,
odnosno uvoenjem rijei na takav nain koji e omoguiti uenicima da naslute
njihovo znaenje na osnovu konteksta, oblika rijei ili nekog tipa ilustracije, pri
emu uenike treba podsticati da pogaaju znaenje tih novih rijei, i pri tom ne
oekivati od njih da budu uvijek uspjeni u tome. Takoe je vano da uenik zna
da li se neka rije koristi veoma esto ili veoma rijetko, da li se vie koristi u pi-
sanju ili u govoru, da li je pogodnija za formalni ili za neformalni kontekst, i slino.
Deremi Harmer (1997) naglaava izuzetnu vanost tehnike otkrivanja
pomou koje uenik samostalno dolazi do znaenja rijei umjesto da ga dobije
od nastavnika ili ga pronae u rjeniku, i smatra je naroito korisnom na sre-
dnjem i viim nivoima. Koristei ovu strategiju, uenik pamti kontekst u kome se
odreena rije upotrebljava i kako ona kolocira sa drugim rijeima, i istovre-
meno aktivira i svoje prethodno znanje. U sreditu ovakvog jednog pristupa na-
lazi se interakcija, iji znaaj je nemjerljiv kada se zna da uenik lake ui i pamti
novu rije ako ona ima neko lino znaenje za njega i ako je vezuje za svoje isku-
stvo, odnosno ako uspostavi neki odnos sa njom (ikmanovi 1997). Uenike,
46
Npr. panijel i terijer imaju sljedea zajednika obiljeja: + domaa ivotinja, + pas, + lovaki pas,
i slino.
124 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
47
Peni Ur (Penny Ur) smatra da je ovakva vrsta informacije od koristi prevashodno uenicima sa
viim nivoima znanja.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 125
4. ta bi trebalo predavati
Ne postoji opta saglasnost oko toga koje rijei treba predavati na kom
nivou, kao to je to sluaj sa gramatikom; meutim, nepisano je pravilo da se ri-
jei sa konkretnim znaenjem predaju na niim, a rijei sa apstraktnim zna-
enjem na viim nivoima.
Drugi kriterijum za izbor rijei koje je najbolje uiti je uestalost upo-
trebe rijei i broj znaenja koja ona pokriva (to vie znaenja neka rije pokriva,
to bolje). Prema najee citiranim rezulatima prorauna uestalosti rijei, 2000
najfrekventnijih glavnih rijei pokriva oko 85% rijei na bilo kojoj strani bilo koje
knjige, bez obzira na temu; te rijei sadrane su i u General Service List of English
Words (Nation and Newton 1997).
48
Chunks.
49
Pozivajui se na Gardnera, Beglar i Hant istiu da se motivacija poveava kada se cilj vidi kao
vaan i ostvariv pri emu specifini ciljevi (npr. Nauiu 20 rijei nedeljno) dovode do veeg
uspjeha od optih ciljeva (npr. Poboljau svoje znanje engleskog jezika).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 127
5. Zakljuak
Bibliografija:
Hogben, D., and M. J. Lawson. Keyword and multiple elaboraition strategies for
vocabulary acquisition in foreign language learning. Contemporary
Educational Psychology 19, (1994): 367-376.
Huckin, T., M. Haynes, and J. Coady. Second Language Reading and Vocabulary
Learning. Norwood, N.J: Alex, 1993.
Hunt, A., and D. Beglar. Current Research and Practice in Teaching Vocabulary.
JALT. 22(1) (1998): 7-11.
Laufer, B. The concept of synform (similar lexical forms) in vocabulary
acquisition. Language and Education 2 (1988): 113-132.
Laufer, Batia. The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you dont
know, words you think you know, and words you cant guess. Second
Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Eds. J. Coady and T. Huckin. UK: CUP:
1997. 20-34.
Laufer, Batia, Paul Meara, and Paul Nation.Ten best ideas for teaching
vocabulary. The Language Teacher. Vol. 29, No 7. (2005). The Japanese
Association for Language Teachers.
Low, G. D.On teaching metaphor. Applied Linguistics 9/2 (1988): 125-47.
McCarthy, M. Vocabulary. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
Meara, P. Vocabulary acquisition: A neglected aspect of language learning.
Language Teaching and Linguistics: Abstracts (1980): 221-246.
Nagy, W., and P. Herman. Incidental vs. instructional approaches to increasing
reading vocabulary. Educational Perspectives 23 (1985): 16-21.
Nation I.S.P. Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. Mass.: Heinle and Heinle, 1990.
Nation, P., and J. Newton. Teaching vocabulary. J. Second language
vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy. Eds. Coady & Th.
Huckin. Cambridge: CUP, 1997: 238-55.
Nunan, D. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers.
Edinburgh: Pearson, 2000.
Schmitt, Norbert and Michael McCarthy. (Eds.) Vocabulary: description,
acquisition and pedagogy. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
Schmitt, N. (1995). The word on words: An interview with Paul Nation. The
Language Teacher 19:2.
ikmanovi, Lj. Nastava engleskog jezika za odrasle (neobjavljena magistarska
teza). Biblioteka Filolokog fakulteta u Beogradu. 2007.
Skmen, A. Current trends in teaching second language vocabulary.
Vocabulary: description, acquisition and pedagogy. Eds. N. Schmitt and
M. McCarthy. Cambridge: CUP, 1997: 237-257.
Thornbury, S. How to Teach Vocabulary. Harlow: Longman, 2002.
Ur, Penny. A Course in Language Teaching (Practice and Theory). Cambridge:
CUP, 1999.
130 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
The aim of this paper is to highlight the factors that are important for
the conception and organization of teaching and learning foreign language
vocabulary. The paper gives a detailed overview of the relationships between
words, as well as a number of very useful concrete ideas that are suitable for
learning and teaching foreign language vocabulary in formal setting, i.e. in the
classroom.
Apstrakt: Rad tretira jednu prilino novu kategorije u oblasti obrazovanja nastavnika
kontinuirani profesionalni razvoj nastavnika stranih jezika. Sa kratkim osvrtom na
razloge i neophodnost za ovakvim vidom usavravanja nastavnika, autor u nastavku rada,
uz konsultaciju relevantne literature, stavlja teite na teorijske postavke i pojanjenja
problema, uz nabrajanje najeih vidova profesionalnog razvoja.
1. Uvod
50
Sve informacije o nadlenostima i djelatnostima Odsjeka za kontinuirani profesionalni razvoj
nastavnika mogu se dobiti na sajtu Zavoda za kolstvo crne Gore: www.zavodzaskolstvo.gov.me
132 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Svi ovi razlozi, naravno, rezultiraju potrebom drutva i obrazovnih vlasti za kvali-
tetnim, kompetentnim i dobro obuenim nastavnim kadrom koji e odgovoriti
novim zahtjevima savremene nastave, implementirati nova saznanja, i sa uspje-
hom obavljati sloeni posao nastavnika stranog jezika.
Nastavnici stranih jezika se jo u toku studija obuavaju za nastavniki
poziv pohaajui kurseve iz metodike nastave, gdje se upoznaju sa osnovnim
teorijama, pristupima, metodama i tehnikama koje predstavljaju osnovu za rad
sa uenicima, a takoe stiu i odreenu praksu, kroz hospitovanje i samostalno
izvoenje nastave prilikom polaganja praktinog dijela ispita u okviru kursa iz
metodike nastave odreenog stranog jezika. Smatra se da je ovo osnova i pola-
zna taka od koje nastavnik-poetnik moe poeti sa izvoenjem nastave, a, na-
ravno, od njega se oekuje da se profesionalno usavrava tokom itavog svog
radnog vijeka (Richards, Farrell 1; ZZCG 4).
Tornberi smatra da profesionalni razvoj nastavnika moe biti formalne
prirode (tokom radnog staa nastavnika, i karakterie ga pohaanje kraih ili
Folia linguistica et litteraria 133
Nastava kao zanat Ovaj model je bio tradicionalno prihvaen model obra-
zovanja nastavnika sve do kraja drugog svjetskog rata. Po ovom modelu, mu-
drost profesije lei u iskusnom praktiaru, onome ko je strunjak u zanatskoj
praksi. Mladi nastavnik ui imitiranjem iskusnog starijeg nastavnika, slijedei nje-
gova uputstva i savjete. Na taj nain, nastavniki zanat se prenosi sa generacije
na generaciju. Ovaj model moe se grafiki predstaviti na sljedei nain:
Folia linguistica et litteraria 137
Uenje sa starijim
iskusnijim Profesionalna
Praksa
nastavnikom: kompetencija
demonstracija/
uputstva
Nauna
saznanja
Rezultati preneseni
nastavnicima
Povremeno osavremenjivanje
znanja (tokom prakse)
Praksa
Profesionalna
kompetencija
Dobijeno znanje
Profesionalna
Praksa Razmiljanje
kompetencija
Prethodno
iskustveno
znanje
4. Zakljuak
Bibliografija:
Bowen, Tim and Jonathan Marks. Inside Teaching: Options for English Language
Teachers. Oxford: Heinemann English Language Teaching, 1994.
Burns, Anne and Jack C. Richards, eds. The Cambridge Guide to Second
Language Teacher Education. New York: CUP, 2009.
Celce-Murcia, Marianne, ed. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language.
Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 2001.
Cook, Guy. Applied Linguistics: Oxford Introductions to Language Study. Oxford:
OUP, 2003.
Davies, Paul and Eric Pearse. Success in English Teaching. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
Edge, Julian and Sue Garton. From Experience to Knowledge in ELT. Cambridge:
CUP, 2009.
Harmer, Jeremy. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Harlow: Pearson,
2003.
Head, Katie and Pauline Taylor. Readings in Teacher Development. Oxford:
Macmillan Heinemann English Language Teaching, 1997.
Hedge, Tricia. Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford: OUP,
2000.
Kiti, Slobodanka. An Introduction to Methodology in ELT. Ni: Filozofski fakultet
u Niu, 2007.
Larsen-Freeman, Diane. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching.
Oxford: OUP, 2001.
Lindsay, Cora and Paul Knight. Learning and Teaching English: A Course for
Teachers. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
Richards, J. C. and Thomas S. C. Farrell. Professional Development for Language
Teachers: Strategies for Teacher Learning. New York: CUP, 2009.
Scrivener, Jim. Learning Teaching. Oxford: Macmillan Education, 2005.
Sinclair, John. Ed. Collins Cobuild Advanced Learners English Dictionary.
Glasgow: HarperCollins, 2003.
Thornbury, Scott. An A to Z of ELT. Oxford: Macmillan, 2006.
Wallace, M. J. Training Foreign Language Teachers: A Reflective Approach.
Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Zavod za kolstvo Crne Gore. Deset godina Zavoda. Podgorica: Zavod za
kolstvo, 2009. www.zavodzaskolstvo.gov.me, sajtu pristupljeno
04.05.2011. u 01.15.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 141
The aim of the paper is to shed light on quite a new area in foreign
language teacher education continuing professional development for foreign
language teachers. By giving reasons and pointing out the necessity for this kind
of teacher development, the author displays main theoretical considerations
regarding this issue as well as the most frequent activities for continuing
professional development for foreign language teachers.
Apstrakt: Ovaj rad se bavi interpretacijom sadraja u asopisima koje je pokrenuo Risto
Ratkovi dvadesetih godina prologa vijeka. S obzirom na to da navedeno vrijeme
pripada avangardi, jasno je da su i asopisi toga opredjeljenja te da su i svi poetski
tekstovi upotrebljivi u svrhu poetoloke rekonstrukcije avangardne formacije. Almanasi
Venost, Umetnost, aa vode, Refleks mladih i Bela revija, ipak, najvie doprinose
rasvjetljavanju nadrealistikog pravca koji predstavlja zalaznicu avangarde, a kroz sve to
moemo pratiti poetiki razvoj pokretaa asopisa Rista Ratkovia koji nikada nije
bespogovorno prihvatio postulate nadrealistike tehnike automatskog pisanja.
Depersonalizacija lirskog subjekta, somnambularne vizije, antilogiko spajanje pojmova,
ikoniki znak, iroka asocijativnost i slobodan stih, samo su neki od brojnih elemenata
kojima se promovie nova poetika, ali i nova poetika u nadrealistikim almanasima Rista
Ratkovia.
Pa kako? Pa gde?
Tuno je rei ne.
Pa gde? Pa kako?
Slutim za nae gore rascvetanu brezu
apatom zvan na njoj vee celo.
Tuga oiju naih,
prerano svisla.
Gle!
Jedne se noi ko dete uplaih.
Pa gde? Pa kako?
- Umreu tako,
bez sna,
dok oi spustim na plava dna...
Veruj mi, drue, ne bih plako'
ne mue mene vie pitanja.
Da plovim, plovim
po tugama, draga,novim
jer sve je samo rumen
i snenog blaga grumen.
Preploviu!
Da snim, snim,
preblagi, dragi, tvoj uvenan mim,
Jer sve je samo krilati Rim
razapet nad oblacima svim.
Propijaniu,
budem li u dvorcu oblaka svetli knez
to toi podneblju krv praoca mog
obamirau,
zanemo u umi besvesti,
jer treba da opevam jablana kog
e sve nae strasti preplesti
kao pokidan devojaki vez.
154 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Obamirau,
u plau, na mau,
pa nek se krsti sve do uda!
Koliko god ulazio u nedovoljno dokuenu podsvijest kao vrhovni cilj na-
drealista, Ratkovi u tom svom poetskom zamahu ne zapostavlja prolost, nema
izrazito negativistiki odnos prema njoj, a ne prenebregava ni budunost. Svje-
stan je da svaka podsvijest prikazana u trenutku sadanjice mora nositi talog
prolosti, jer drugaije ne bi ni postojala ni opstajala, a svako budue stanje opet
zavisi od kauzaliteta prolosti. Razlog za Ratkovievo nezanemarivanje prolosti
kao vremensko-prostorne jedinice koja je doprinijela konvergentnom slaganju
elemenata podsvjesnog modela, treba traiti u podneblju iz kojeg je ponikao.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 157
senke. I ona. Voleo ju je nemarno, ali beskrajno.'' A o njenoj ljepoti koja podli-
jee i njenom esteskom sudu vrijednosti, kae se jo ''O, ona je imala lepotu
udaljenosti od koje se bojala. I kada bi god videla svoju prozranost, svoju rume-
nu maglovitost, svoju udaljenost, u njoj je zvonio treptaj straha iji se odjek pre-
livao u ljubomoru.''
Kada se pregleda sadraj almanaha u ijem je ureivakom odboru bo
Risto Ratkovi, teko je samo na osnovu naslova odgonetnuti da li je u pitanju
poetska ili prozna forma, to je i razumljivo ako se zna da je sutinski materijal i
svakog proznog teksta nadrealiste sainjen od poetskih niti. Naslovi kao Senke
zloina (P. Starevi), Otkrovenje (Tinmor), Prisna utapanja i Nedirnuta varka (M.
Dragutinovia), Raskrsnica (B. Jovanovi), Pred razvalinama jednog bia i Sedam
malih zlatnih paukova (M. Dragutinovi), Tragovi (R. Ratkovi), More oko Beo-
grada (Moni de Buli) i dr., odraz su sutinske promjene u poslijeratnom promi-
ljanju, jer davati sasvim neobine i u dotadanjoj knjievnoj praksi, skroz neuo-
biajene naslove, znailo je radikalno reformisati stav prema poeziji i ivotu, a
moda i imati rafiniraniji senzibilitet za prirodu i ljude. Tekstovi nastajali u avan-
gardno vrijeme, osim to su novina u sintaksikom i semantikom smislu, takoe
su po svojoj fenomenolokoj intepretaciji, znaili i prohod u neke nove domene
literarnih postupaka neoavangardne i kasnije, strukturalistike. Nesvakidanje
jezike konstrukcije su primarna operacija ovih tekstova, a to svakako povlai I
ambivalenciju u znaenjskom pogledu.
Literatura:
Apstrakt: Ovaj rad bavi se priama raciosinacije Edgara Alana Poa i njegovim
doprinosom razvoju klasine i metafizike detektivske prie. Zahvaljujui priama o
Dipenu, sklonom rjeavanju sluajeva iz naslonjae, a u kome su uzora pronali erlok
Holms, Herkul Poaro i mnogi drugi detektivi, Po je uveo misteriju na iroka vrata
amerike knjievne scene. Iako je napisao sedamdesetak pria ini se da je najvei
doprinos dao razvoju pria raciosinacije iji je rodonaelnik.
Poove prie raciosinacije, odnosno detektivske prie, za koje je, svjestan svoje
uloge u stvaranju ovog anra, prokomentarisao da veliki dio svoje popularnosti
duguju injenici da su stvorene u novom kljuu, svoje pretke imaju u knjiev-
nim eksperimentima poput Duguljastog sanduka i Ti si taj. U pitanju su
eksperimentalne prie koje se od prave detektivske prie razlikuju na vie na-
ina. arls Mej istie da i u jednoj i drugoj prii misteriju razrjeava osoba koja
kazuje priu to znai da nema pripovjedaa posrednika koji ima sutinsko upo-
rite u priama sa Dipenom i Zlatnoj bubi. Poova tehnika korienja pripovje-
daa nalik Votsonu itaoca stavlja u krucijalnu hermeneutiku situaciju izmeu
pripovjedaa i protagoniste u kojoj on zna manje od drugog, ali vie od pretho-
dnog51 (May 83). U ovim djelima Po nam ne prezentuje hermeneutiku zago-
netku, to je kljuna konstanta Dipenovih pria. U prii Ti si taj italac tek na
kraju saznaje razrjeenje zagonetke, dok u Duguljastom sanduku pripovjeda
shvata da je pogrijeio. Pripovjeda Duguljastog sanduka nije ekspert u analiti-
kim analizama poput Dipena. Traganje za istinom njega zanima iskljuivo da bi
zadovoljio sopstvenu radoznalost. U prii Ti si taj italac shvata koja je mi-
sterija u pitanju tek na koncu prie. Struktura zapleta nije izgraena na objanja-
vanju nekog skrivenog obrasca, kako je to primjetno u Dipenovim priama, ve
na ironinom obrascu (84). Ovdje je od izuzetnog znaaja igra rijei, pogotovo sa
imenima protagonista, tako da se od samog poetka italac navodi da pomisli da
je g. Dobri (Goodfellow, prev. S. Simovi) zaista dobar momak (good fellow), a
da se g. Punikesi (Pennifeather, prev. S. Simovi) zbog novca rijeio roaka.
Poov sljedei eksperiment sa priom raciosinacije jeste Zlatna buba, Poova
51
Poes technique of employing a Watsonlike narrator puts the reader in a crucial hermeneutic
situation between the narrator and the protagonist in which he knows less than the latter but
more than the former.
162 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
52
actually grotesquerie of any rational system [...] reducing all its exercises to a fundamental,
primordial simplicity, its basic Calculus of Probability.
53
each in its special way proceeds from multipicity and confusion to the primal simplicity.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 163
II
54
a text, that parodies or subverts traditional detective-story conventions such as narrative
closure and the detectives role as surrogate reader.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 165
glavnog znaaja, ubistvo ne bude obavljeno (82). Horhe Luis Borhesova pria
Smrt i kompas (1942) nosi karakteristike koje je uveo Po, a kasnije razradio
esterton knjievni citat pogreno shvaen kao zapis samoubice, to smo
susreli ve kod estertona i uvodna scena koja neodoljivo podsjea na onu iz
Pogrenog oblika.
I ovde sam dugo, usred zbrke koja je svakog trenutka postajala sve vea,
ustrajao u praenju neznanog oveka. Ali, po svom obiaju, on je iao
Folia linguistica et litteraria 167
tamo-amo i celog dana nije izlazio iz vrtloga ove ulice. A kad su se poele
pribliavati senke drugog veera, bio sam ve mrtav umoran, pa, za-
stavi pred lutalicom, gledao sam ga netremice pravo u lice. On me nije
primetio, ve je nastavio svoju sveanu ophodnju, dok sam ja, odustavi
od daljeg praenja, ostao sav udubljen u razmiljanje. Ovaj starac, re-
koh najzad sam sebi, olienje je i duh duboko skrivenog zloina. On ne-
e da bude sam. On je ovek gomile. Uzalud bi ga pratio; jer ne bih nita
vie saznao o njemu ni o njegovim delima. Najgore srce na svetu deblja
je i odvratnija knjiga od Hortulus Animae, i moda je to jedna od velikih
bojih milosti to es Icisst sich nicht lesen. (Po u Simonovi 347)
Vjerovatno prvi put u knjievnosti, istie Merivejlova, imamo lik koji po-
put detektiva otkriva sluaj i koji je zavezao usta maramicom zbog ogromne
vlage u vazduhu, nosio gumene kaljae da bi se kretao bez ikakvog uma,
potpuno neprimijeen. On ne uspijeva u svojoj opsesivnoj hajci te ne ispunivi
zamisao zakljuuje da je u pitanju ovjek gomile, olienje duboko skrivenog
zloina ije se tajne ne daju proitati. No, postavlja se pitanje opravdanosti pri-
povjedaevog komentara na kraju prie, ako uopte moemo govoriti o kraju u
tradicionalnom smislu, jer se ponaanje ovjeka gomile moe protumaiti i kao
reakcija na saznanje da ga itavog dana netremice posmatra i u stopu prati ne-
poznat ovjek zarad sopstvene zabave i zadovoljenja radoznalosti uma.
ovjek gomile se po modernoj kritici moe tretirati prvom metafi-
zikom Gumshoe priom. Poovi uticaji osjeaju se i u djelima japanskog Kafke
Kobo Abea, ali i Pola Ostera, posebno u metafizikim detektivskim priama Grad
stakla, Duhovi i Zakljuana soba objavljenih kao Njujorka trilogija. Osnovne
karakteristike uvenih detektiva poput Dipena i erloka Holmsa, podrazumije-
vaju sklonost ka dupliranju, nevjerovatnu sposobnost da se odgonetnu motivi i
metodi kriminalaca, ali ne i dovoenje u opasnost sopstvene linosti. U metafizi-
koj detektivskoj prii situacija je prilino izmijenjena. Ukleti detektiv je nespo-
soban da razlikuje ono to pretpostavlja i zna, ali zato moe shvatiti da je on r-
tva koju sveti, kriminalac kojeg trai, ili oboje u isto vrijeme55 (Sweeney u
Merivale and Sweeney 248). Kako Svinijeva navodi, u takvim detektivskim pria-
ma na uveno pitanje Whodunit? odgovor je Ja, mada ovo povlai sljedee
pitanje Ko je to Ja, odgovor je vie nego kompleksan. Detektivi u priama
Borhesa i Ostera insceniraju sopstvenu smrt.
55
The victim he avenges, the criminal he seeks, or both at once.
168 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
56
Such substitutions, moreover, usually occur on two levels: first, the texts diegetic plot (that is,
the protagonists apparent death constitutes the crime); second, its extradiegetic narration (that
is, the protagonist seeks metafictional immortality within the text).
57
Dupin, The Pit and the Pendulum, El Araf [sic! S. Simovi], Eureka: Poes works underpin a
creation which [...] carries us ever forward, toward the dissolution of signs and the great white
empty spaces of the end of The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym.
58
Indeed, this tale eventually led to metaphorical detective stories by Alfau, Nabokov, Borges,
and Auster whose protagonists also stage their own deaths in order to attain new identities and
gain control of the very texts in which they appear.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 169
59
Precisely, because it is a genre that grows out of an interest in deductions and solutions rather
than in love and drama, the analytic detective story shows little interest in character, managing at
best to produce caricatures monsters of idiosyncracy from Holmes to Poirot.
60
incarnated each time by different characters.
61
The first is a glance that sees nothing: the king and the police.
The second, a glance which sees that the first sees nothing and deludes itself as to the secrecy of
what it hides: the Queen, then the Minister.
The third sees that the first two glances leave what should be hidden exposed to whoever would
seize it: the Minister, and finally Dupin.
170 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
62
[A]ccording to Derrida, Lacan reduces the four-sided structure of the scene of narration what
Derrida calls the scene of writing to the three-sided structure of the narrated scene by over-
looking the narrators position, the narrators involment in the content of what he seems to be
recounting.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 171
umu dok se odluivao kako da imenuje priu. U pitanju je Sofoklov Kralj Edip,
odnosno prevod na engleski jezik onog dijela kada prorok Tiresija optuuje Edipa
koji mu se obraa za pomo da sazna ko je ubica njegovog oca Laja. Poto prorok
uporno odbija da otkrije traeno ime, Edip okrivljuje proroka da je uestvovao u
zavjeri na ta mu prorok odgovara Thou art the man, / Thou the accursed
polluter of this land (Irwin 4-5).
Bibliografija:
Barone, Denise. Ed. Beyond the Red Notebook: Essays on Paul Auster.
Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania, 1995.
Black, Joel. (De)feats of Detection: The Spurious Key Text from Poe to Eco in
Ed. Patricia Merivale and Susan Elizabeth Sweeney. Detecting Texts: The
Metaphysical Detective Story from Poe to Postmodernism. Philadelphia:
U of Pennsylvania, 1995.
Bloom, Harold. Ed. Blooms Modern Critical Views: Edgar Allan Poe. New York:
Chelsea, 2006.
Bloom, Harold. Short Story Writer and Short Stories. Philadelphia: Chelsea, 2005.
Bloomfield, Shelley Costa. The Everything Guide to Edgar Allan Poe. Avon,
Massachusetts: Adams, 2007.
Chnatier, Marc. Paul Austers Pseudonymous World in Ed. Denise Barone.
Beyond the Red Notebook: Essays on Paul Auster. Philadelphia: U of
Pennsylvania, 1995.
Connely, Michael. Ed. In the Shadow of the Master. New York: Harper Collins,
2009.
Davidson, Edward H. Poe: A Critical Study. Cambridge: The Belknap of Harvard
UP, 1969.
Irwin, John T. The Mistery to a Solution: Poe, Borges, and the Analytic Detective
Story. Baltimore: The John Hopkins UP, 1996.
Keesey, Donald. Contexts for Criticism. New York: McGraw Hill, 2003.
Lacan, Jacque. Seminar on The Purloined Letter in Ed. John P. Muller and
William J. Richardson. The Purloined Poe: Lacan, Derrida and
Psychoanalytic Reading. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1988.
Mankowitz, Wolf. The Extraordinary Mr. Poe. New York: Summit, 1978.
May, Charles E. Edgar Allan Poe: A Study of the Short Fiction. Boston: Twayne,
1991.
Merivale, Patricia and Susan Elizabeth Sweeney (eds). Detecting Texts: The
Metaphysical Detective Story from Poe to Postmodernism. Philadelphia:
U of Pennsylvania P, 1994.
172 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Muller, John P. And William J. Richardson (eds). The Purloined Poe: Lacan,
Derrida and Psychoanalytic Reading. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP,
1988.
Silverman, Kenneth. New Essays on Poes Major Tales. Cambridge: CUP, 1993.
Simonovi, Simon (ur). Edgar Alan Po: Sabrane prie i pesme. Beograd: Rad, 2006.
This paper deals with Edgar Allan Poes stories of ratiocination and his
contribution to development of the classical and the metaphysical detective
story. Owing to his stories about Dupin inclined to armchair detecting who
served as a model to Sherlock Holmes, Hercule Poirot and many other
detectives, Poe introduced mystery through the front door of the American
literary scene. Although he wrote about seventy short stories it seems that he
gave the greatest contribution to development of ratiocination stories, a genre
that he originated.
Apstrakt: Vilijam Fokner spada u red onih pisaca koji imaju posve unikatan dar da
pomou malo rei i oskudnih deskripcija izraze mnogo toga, ak i stvari iji pravi smisao
naizgled izmie i sveobuhvatnim granicama jezika. Zbog toga je cilj autora ovog rada da
pokua da u zasebnom svetlu prikae tumaenje lika Kventina Kompsona, moda i
najvanije figure itavog pievog opusa. Pod tumaenjem e se ovde podrazumevati pre
svega detaljno rasvetljavanje svih nejasnih okolnosti pod kojima je ovaj lik doekao
svoju traginu sudbinu u romanu Buka i bes. Stoga e se sredinja analiza lika Kventina,
na pomalo nekonvencionalan nain, baviti neim to izdaleka podsea na kakvu
forenziku istragu, budui da e se u stopu pratiti kretanje junaka tokom njegovog
poslednjeg dana, da bi se nakon toga psiholokim tumaenjem i analizom dolo do istine
koja se krije iza njegove strane sudbine.
Kljune rei: Buka i bes, Kventin Kompson, samoubistvo, riv, Kedi, otac, sestra.
Pre nego to se uzme u obzir analiziranje bilo kakvih spoljanjih ili unu-
tranjih okolnosti pod kojima je izvreno Kventinovo delo, panju bi trebalo
usmeriti na dve znaajne teze iz eseja autora Dona Fridmana i Dobsa, odnosno
Rikija Flojda, koji su se delimino pozabavili ovim sluajem. U prvoj tezi autor ka-
e: Da bi se razumeo lik Kventina, neophodno je prvo razumeti drutvene i isto-
rijske uslove koji su sazdali ovog nepromiljenog Galahada (Dobs/Flojd 1997:
1). U drugoj tezi navodi se: Njegova nesposobnost da se suoi sa promenama,
reenost da ne zanemari stari junjaki kodeks, kao i opsednutost vremenom i
vitetvom, ine da njegova svest oslikava celokupnu svest i starog i novog Juga
(Fridman 2010: 1).
Govorei o liku Kventina, moda je najbolje poeti u Foknerovom stilu,
in medias res, kako bi se u to manjoj meri odstupilo od razumevanja ovog lika
na nain koji je verovatno i sam pisac imao na umu.
Zarad boljeg razumevanja fragmentovanog oslikavanja Kventinovih misli
tokom poslednjeg dana njegovog ivota (02.06.1910.), neophodno je prvo
upoznati se sa istorijskom podlogom prema kojoj je ovaj lik sainjen. To se pre
svega odnosi na aristokratsko poreklo porodice Kompson koja ne samo da uiva
ugled zbog svog prosperiteta i pozicije u drutvu, ve i zbog injenice da se radi o
direktnim potomcima starog, amerikog Juga, simbola jednog potenog i kava-
174 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
ljerskog soja naroda. Tako je Kventin, kako istie autor Volp, predstavljen kao li-
nost koja je vaspitana u svetlu karakternih crta ljubaznosti, vitetva, hrabrosti,
iskrenosti (Volp 2003: 106). Imajui to u vidu lake se moe razumeti, pre sve-
ga, njegova neuobiajena privrenost sestri Kedi i beskonana ljubav prema njoj,
kao i stravino primanje k srcu svih onih inilaca koji kaljaju njeno ime, odnosno
naruavaju za njega itav ideal sestre u jednom apstraktnom, simbolikom po-
gledu, kao i ideal stabilne i srene familije uopte.
elja da se ideali, vrednosti i vitetvo ouvaju i ostanu netaknuti je vrlo
prominentna u mladom junaku koji ipak nije imao snage ni sredstava da se na
kraju izbori za ouvanje istih, makar u krugu sopstvene porodice, to je, kako e-
mo videti, prouzrokovalo na kraju njegov pad.
7:30-7:4563
Kventin se nalazi u svojoj sobi na Harvardu. Ovo mesto predstavlja poetnu i za-
vrnu (ako izuzmemo mesto izvrenja samoubistva) taku Kventinovog dana.
Videemo kako ovo mesto, na koje se on pred kraj dana vraa, simbolizuje po-
etak i kraj njegovog ivota.
Kventin odbija da zna koliko je tano sati. Odavde poinje njegovo hvatanje u
kotac s vremenom, to je samo jedan od njegovih brojnih nereivih problema.
injenica da ne moe zaustaviti vremenski tok znaajna je za delo u smislu da
ona predstavlja jo jedno borbeno polje na kojem je ovaj junak ostao poraen.
7:58
Kventinova predavanja poinju za dva minuta. Njegov cimer riv se na brzinu
sprema nameravajui da krene.
63
asovi odvijanja radnje su priblino definisani jer je nemogue precizno odrediti tano vreme
koje je proteklo u toku Kventinovih sledova misli. Preskoeni vremenski sledovi su oni ija
dogaanja nisu relevantna za sluaj samoubistva.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 175
Kventin nije otiao na predavanje tog dana. Svakako iz razloga to je bio ispla-
nirao neto sasvim drugaije. Ova injenica je znaajan pokazatelj da je Kventinu
daleko znaajniji od linog prosperiteta bio porodini sklad sa sestrom Kedi u
svom centru.
8:00-8:15
Kventin se i dalje nalazi u sopstvenoj sobi.
Ovaj neoekivani akt razbijanja stakla na svom satu i unitavanja kazaljki jo je-
dan je u nizu dokaza o Kventinovom konstantnom sukobu sa vremenom, iji se
koreni nalaze u nihilistikoj indoktrinaciji njegovog oca, o kojoj e kasnije biti
vie rei.
8:20-8:30
Kventin ulazi u asovniarsku radnju da bi pokazao svoj slomljeni sat asovni-
aru. I ovaj odeljak je ustvari povezan sa njegovim vremenskim sukobom.
8:45
Kventin sada dolazi u gvoarsku radnju u nameri da kupi utije. Dokazni mate-
rijali o samoubistvu se gomilaju i namera o onome to eli da uini biva jo vie
rasvetljena. Ne spominje se direktno zbog ega ih kupuje, meutim, njegove mi-
sli nam otkrivaju da e izgledati kao dve zavijene cipele, to upuuje na to da nije
eleo da neko primeti ta tano ima kod sebe, a pretpostavlja se (ili bolje rei
izvesno je) da su mu one posluile kao indirektno sredstvo izvrenja samoubistva
time to bi mu, privezane za telo ili noge, omoguile da brzo potone do samog
dna.
8:55-9:00
Kventin ulazi u tramvaj. injenica da ne zna kuda tramvaj tano ide ne mora nu-
no da opovrgne to da nije svestan kuda je poao. Ispostavlja se da ono to je
isplanirao, iako podsvesno, ipak radi proraunato.
176 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
9:15
Tramvaj staje i Kventin izlazi. Najverovatnije da je tada prvi put doao do mesta
izvrenja samoubistva nakon to ga je isplanirao. Namera mu je bila, pre svega,
da tu pronae Dikona kako bi mu uruio pismo za riva. Takoe, smatra se da su
ga ista elja i nagon u neku ruku i podsvesno doveli do mesta njegove tragedije
gde su ga potom obuzele mnoge misli i seanja.
9:30
Kventin konano pronalazi Dikona.
9:45
Kventin sree riva.
riv postavlja logina pitanja o namerama svog cimera, meutim Kventin je do-
sledan u sopstvenoj nameri da ne otkrije ni deli onoga to planira i trudei se
da za sve one koji ne slute nita neobino u vezi s njim, njegov sluaj ostane oba-
vijen velom misterije.
12:00
Kventin dolazi do mosta sa koga namerava da skoi. Doao je kako bi sakrio utije
koje nije eleo da izlae daljoj mogunosti da budu otkrivene.
13:00-13:30
Kventin dolazi u pekaru gde sree jednu siromanu devojicu s kojom bezu-
speno pokuava da uspostavi kontakt. Ova epizoda je vrlo vana za itav sluaj
jer aludira na neuspeli pokuaj da nagovori svoju sestru da izvri njegovu volju,
to je svakako jedna od prekretnica za odluku o samoubistvu.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 177
18:30-19:00
Nakon to se afera sa italijanskom devojicom i policijom zavrila, Kventin se sa-
da naao u drutvu svojih kolega i drugara: riva, Spouda i Deralda. Kako je
Derald vaio za hvalisavca kada su devojke u pitanju, sada ga je pomahnitali
Kventin, prenuvi se iz svojih misli, napao, to je dovelo do tue. Ovaj odeljak
predstavlja jo jedan u nizu od Kventinovih poraza na psiholokom i fizikom pla-
nu, budui da je direktno povezan sa njegovim napadom na Doltona Ejmza, to
je prethodno i evocirao u svojim mislima.
21:30-22:00
Zavrni deo dana upotpunjuje ciklinu strukturu ovog odeljka: Kventin je ponovo
u svojoj sobi, po poslednji put, inei zavrne pripreme. Tano u 22:00 naputa
stan i odlazi da konano uini ono to je nameravao. Interesantno je vienje au-
tora Boulinga (Bowling) koji Kventinovu elju da sve bude u stanju besprekorne
urednosti (npr. stvari bez velikog znaaja koje radi pred samu smrt, poput pranja
zuba) vidi kao manifestaciju njegovog puritanistikog duha (Bowling 1958: 466).
sopstvena senka. Ono to njega ini, nasuprot svim oekivanjima, velikim bor-
cem je injenica da je on svesno uao u kotac s ovim nesavladivim psiholokim
preprekama, a i na realnom planu se suoio sa problemima koje ne samo on, ve
ni najvri karakteri ne bi mogli reiti na nain na koji je on eleo i koji bi zado-
voljio visoke i viteke vrednosti i ideale njegove linosti. Nita drugo sem nemi-
novnog poraza nije mogao ni da doeka.
Literatura:
Dobbs, Ricky Floyd. Case Study in Social Neurosis: Quentin Compson and the Lost
Cause, Papers on Language & Literature, 1997. www.questia.com.
Fokner, Vilijam. Buka i bes, Beograd: Zavod za udbenike i nastavna sredstva,
2001.
Jean-Paul Sartre. On The Sound and The Fury: Time in The Work of Faulkner, 1955.
http://drc.usask.ca/.
Joe, Friedman. Dueling Consciences: Quentin Compsons Deliverance, voices.
yahoo.com, 2010.
Lawrence, E. Bowling. Faulkner and the Theme of Innocence. Kenyon Review.
(XX), Ohio, 1958.
Volpe, Edmond. A Readers Guide to William Faulkner, New York: Syracuse UP,
2003.
Weltner, Peter: Stalking Quentin Compson, Clapboard, 2009. www.clapboard-
journal.com/
The paper deals with the two key aspects considered vital for unraveling
the true reason(s) behind the tragic fate of the character of Quentin Compson in
Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury. The aspects are classified as forensic meant
to follow the character's actions relevant to the case in real time narration and
psychological organized as a kind of self-imposed study of the character's state
of mind during the day. The analysis of the deed is meant to give some clear
insights and answers to those acquainted with the novel but still baffled with
the gloomy and mysterious circumstances in which Faulkner's hero was put into.
Key Words: The Sound and the Fury, Quentin Compson, suicide, Shreve,
Caddy, sister.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 183
Abstract: The focus of this paper is Flauberts Parrot, a novel by Julian Barnes. One of
the major questions in this study was whether this was a biography of a famous writer,
Flaubert, or an autobiography of a fictionalised character, Braithwaite. This research
discusses what connection Braithwaite found between Flaubert and himself, as well as
what purpose Flauberts art would serve to Braithwaite. It explores the meaning of the
parrot in the novel as well as the persistent quest for that same parrot. The research aims
to analyse the difficulties of interpreting the past correctly as well as how perspective
influences that interpretation and ultimately it provides an analysis of the result of the
narrators quest and a conclusion of what it suggests.
Key Words: art, life, biography, autobiography, past, history, parrot, meaning,
perspective, objectivity, subjectivity.
Introduction
same time: the story of Flaubert, the famous parrot and Geoffrey Braithwaite,
the narrator of the novel.
The main character in this novel is Geoffrey Braithwaite. He is a retired
doctor who presents himself as a great admirer of Gustave Flaubert. Flauberts
Parrot starts with Braithwaites trip to Rouen where Flaubert spent most of his
life. While visiting two different museums, Braithwaite, just like Barnes, saw two
different parrots that were in the possession of those two museums. Both of
them were said to be the original parrot that Flaubert used as model for writing
the short story Un Coeur Simple. In the rest of the novel, Braithwaite tries to
solve the mystery and find out which of the two is the real parrot.
The search for the real parrot is just one of the stories in the novel which
starts at the beginning, at times is dealt with throughout the novel and finished at
the end. The biggest part of the novel presents Flauberts biography, his literary
work (especially his novel Madame Bovary) and his relationship with Louise Colet.
Throughout the novel Braithwaite is in search for facts about the life and works of
the famous French writer. He tells stories about him, quotes his novels, letters
and diaries. However, Braithwaite thinks that he has superficial knowledge about
Flaubert. As Braithwaite says, all that is left from Flaubert is paper, ideas,
phrases, metaphors, structured prose which turns into sound (Barnes 1984, 12).
He wants to know him intimately, to get more information about his life and
work. The third dimension of the novel, the story that was delayed, is
Braithwaites story about his relationship with his wife Ellen who betrays him with
number of men and eventually commits suicide. None of these stories is told
separately, especially Ellens story which is delayed for a long time. Braithwaite
every once in a while mentions his wife and at times he attempts to begin his
painful story, and every time he leaves his story unfinished. As the novel
continues, we can sense that Braithwaites story about Flaubert and the parrot is
a kind of a cover for telling the tragic story of his wife Ellen.
Braithwaite is haunted by not one ghost but two that of his beloved
wife Ellen and that of the dead French writer. Braithwaite seems to confront
Flauberts voice through the figure of the parrot. Flauberts parrot Loulou was a
kind of symbol for God in Flauberts story Un Coeur Simple. For Geoffrey the
parrot is a symbol of Flaubert. The birds presence seems to provide him the
access to the essence of Flaubert.
In the novel, during his tour, Braithwaite comes face to face with a stuffed
parrot which was borrowed by Flaubert from the Museum of Rouen and placed
on his desk during the writing of Un Coeur Simple. Braithwaite says: I gazed at
the bird, and to my surprise felt ardently in touch with this dead writer who
disdainfully forbade posterity to take any personal interest in him (Barnes 184,
Folia linguistica et litteraria 185
(Auto)Biography?
In this novel, from time to time there are facts about Flauberts life and
story of our biographer. This novel shows us the relationship between readers
and writers, and between fiction and biography. It shows us how we search for
meaning of our own lives between the lines of books that we read. When we start
reading Flauberts Parrot it seems to us that it is just another biography about a
famous writer who has probably been the subject of many biographies and critical
studies. Here, in fact, the essential argument is the connection between art and
life, and the one that tries to discuss these issues is the protagonist. He faces a
personal tragedy that has changed his life in many ways. From the beginning we
follow Geoffrey Braithwaite, the protagonist of the novel, who starts his search
186 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
for the facts about Flaubert, his literary work and personal life. As the novel starts
unfolding we realise that this isnt an ordinary biography.
Ivanovi argues that there are two ways of analyzing this novel. One of
them is the issue of fiction and non-fiction in the novel. The other way of
analyzing the novel is the kinds of novel involved in this unusual novel (qtd. in
Parlog 31-32). This novel, which is a kind of a biography, includes fiction also,
and thus it becomes a sort of a mystery. Braithwaite tries to solve many
mysteries about Flauberts life, even though his ways of doing this may seem
strange, and the search itself seems to be more important than the result of it.
Why did Barnes write Flauberts Parrot in this way?
Moseley noted that Instead of narrative, Braithwaite provides an
impressive mix of other types of prose (75). He quotes a critic, Higdon, who
argues, relating this book to James Joyces Ulysses and D. M. Thomass The United
Hotel, that Flauberts Parrot skilfully deconstructs itself into various types of
documents: the chronology, biography, autobiography, bestiary, philosophical
dialogue, critical essay, manifesto, trainspotters guide, appendix, dictionary,
pure story, and even examination paper (qtd. in Moseley 75).
This novel has a completely different approach to writing a biography,
and Barnes himself explained his view on the traditional form of biography:
There seemed other things wrong with the biographical form, especially when
applied to someone as long dead and as long famous as Flaubert. Each new
biography is another layer of papier-mch applied to the funeral mask, making
the features more stylized (Barnes 1985, par. 16). He wanted to write about
Flaubert in different way. As he says in that article he didnt want to be fair or
judicious (Barnes 1985, par. 16). Even Flaubert himself had a similar opinion on
biography. In a letter of 1872 to his friend Ernest Feydeau, he urged: When you
write the biography of a friend, you must do it as if you were taking revenge for
him.
Pateman argues that another point from which we can approach the
issue of analyzing this novel is the different characters (narrators) in the novel
(31). In the narrative of the novel we have different agents, that is, several
narrators and characters, and as in the case with different genres they represent
a different discourse.
There are four major agents in Flauberts Parrot. The one that
dominates throughout the novel is Braithwaite, because he tells the story.
However, as Moseley stated, Braithwaite makes very little narration in the
conventional way (74). He doesnt control the narration all the time. For
example, in the chapter titled Louise Colets Version the narration is passed over
to the Flauberts mistress. The writer makes her the agent of the novel.
Braithwaite lets her tell the story of her affair with Flaubert from her point of
view. Even in the part that tells the most personal story of his wife, Braithwaite
quotes lines from Flauberts letters. Not only that, but also in the third
Folia linguistica et litteraria 187
Why does the writing make us chase the writer? Why cant we leave
well alone? Why arent books enough? Flaubert wanted them to be: few
writers believed more in the objectivity of the written text and the
insignificance of the writers personality: yet still we disobediently
pursue. (Barnes 1984, 12)
And as the story unfolds, Braithwaites story about his life becomes as
important, if not even more important than the story about Flaubert. As
Braithwaite himself says he is giving us one biography, the one he can try to
understand, as opposed to his own that haunts him as a mystery. He tells
Flauberts story instead, even though his own story as well as Ellens eventually
comes out. However, we ask ourselves whether Flauberts books provide the
solution that Braithwaite searches for. We can see that facts about Flauberts
life are as elusive as those of Braithwaites life. Moseley suggests that
Three stories contend within me. One about Flaubert, one about Ellen,
one about myself. My own is the simplest of three it hardly amounts
to more than a convincing proof of my existence and yet I find it the
hardest to begin. [] Ellens is a true story; perhaps it is even the reason
I am telling you Flauberts story instead. (Barnes 1984, 85-6)
You can define a net in one of two ways, depending on your point of
view. Normally, you would say that it is a meshed instrument designed
to catch fish. But you could, with no great injury to logic, reverse the
image and define a net as a jocular lexicographer once did: he called it a
collection of holes tied together with a string. (Barnes 1984, 38)
We can use the definition of a net for defining the process of seizing the
past. Braithwaite knows that its impossible to know everything about
somebody. Historiography is a narrative composed of connections, threads
that reach across the gaps in knowledge and understanding where most of the
past falls through the net (Childs 87). History for Barnes is made from other
texts and other peoples memory (Childs 87). Braithwaite contemplates: How
do we seize the past? How do we seize the foreign past? We read, we learn, we
ask, we remember, we are humble; and then a casual detail shifts everything
(Barnes 1984, 90). Barnes cannot know everything about Flaubert. He can find
out some particular details from Flauberts life. And he selects those pieces of
information that he wants to use while writing a biography about this writer.
The knowledge we have about others can never be complete. And as a result,
with that partial knowledge about the person they write about, biographers
face the problem of deciding what to use in a biography.
The novel shows the difficulties of interpreting the past and history. We
have an image of a person that is made of memories that we have about that
person. And this fact makes Braithwaites attempt to write a biography about a
writer, who died hundred years ago, a big challenge. For Braithwaite only the
passage of time enables us to think we can understand history (Childs 87-88).
With the passage of time some events, details, pieces of information are
forgotten and some others live through. Braithwaite suggests that this is the
case with writing a biography as well. Moseley claims that Braithwaite is
dubious about the possibility of knowing the truth (Moseley 85). This is
Folia linguistica et litteraria 189
The past is a distant receding coastline, and we are all in the same boat.
Along the stern rail there is a line of telescopes; each brings the shore into
focus at given distance. If the boat is becalmed, one of the telescopes will
be in continual use; it will seem to tell the whole, the unchanging truth.
But this is an illusion; and as the boat sets off again, we return to our
normal activity: scurrying from one telescope to another, seeing the
sharpness fade in one, waiting for the blur to clear in another. (Barnes
1984, 101)
This example shows how perspective can influence the way we see
things. We can look at the shore through one telescope at a time, and every
available telescope gives only a partial and temporary image. Does the novel
then suggest or manifest the complete unavailability of truth or it is possible to
conclude that Barnes intended to imply scepticism about the history but also
produce a different effect (Moseley 86)?
Many critics have argued on the topic of history and past in Flauberts
Parrot. John Bayley believes that Flauberts Parrot suggests something deeper.
The difficulty of finding out about the past of people or things doesnt disprove
those things but it authenticates them (qtd. in Moseley 86). Another critic of
Barnes, James B. Scott, who mostly agrees with Bayley, uses the example of
Ellen. It is impossible to know that Ellen committed suicide despite Braithwaites
statement that clearly indicates she did (qtd. in Moseley 88). Geoffreys
scepticism about that event leads us to his own explanation of the past and the
history: We can study files for decades, but every so often we are tempted to
throw our hands and declare that history is merely another literary genre: the
past is autobiographical fiction pretending to be a parliamentary report (Barnes
1984, 90). This elicits the conclusion that Braithwaite has little scepticism about
the past, but great scepticism about the truth and the reality about that past.
We can see that from the case of his search for the stuffed parrot. Braithwaite
doubts he will find the real parrot but he doesnt conclude that there is no
190 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
real parrot. In the same way he is aware of the impossibility to explain his wifes
life but not the reality of it (Moseley 88). We have to emphasise that this
scepticism doesnt prevent him from searching and seeking. Pateman suggests
that the reason for this pursuit of Braithwaites is a process of self-identification
(26). His need to understand his relationship with Ellen and his relationship with
himself pushes him to create a stable context by telling the story about Flaubert
and the parrot. After dealing with Flaubert, Colet, and the parrot, finally
Braithwaite is ready to tell his story of Ellens life and death (Pateman 28).
Childs believes that in Flauberts Parrot the perspective is everything,
perhaps even more important than truth (91). The best example of the
importance of perspective is the chapter called Chronology, which consists of
three completely different, even contradictory chronologies of Flauberts life. In
the first part he writes in a third-person narration and it is a positive description
of Flaubert and his literary career. In this part Flaubert dies full of honour,
widely loved and working hard to the end (Barnes 1984, 27). The second part
also written in third person narration is a description of Flauberts failures,
losses and pain. In this chronology he dies impoverished, lonely and
exhausted (Barnes 1984, 31). The last chronology is a different one. This one is
an inner description supposed to be written by Flaubert himself. In this part
Flaubert expresses himself: If (the book) is to appear next winter, I havent a
minute to lose between now and then. But there are moments when Im so
tired that I feel Im liquefying like an old Camembert (Barnes 1984, 37). The
author shows how easy it is to interpret the same event in different ways and
this depends on the person who does it. Life can never be fully described and
interpreted in a biography. Any reconstruction will be fragmented and
incomplete, and usually opinions of the biographer and his prejudices never
make the objective truth.
Another example of narrating some event through different perspective
is his personal story about his wife and his relationship with her. He says: I
loved her; we were happy; I miss her (Barnes 1984, 161); She didnt love me;
we were unhappy; I miss her (Barnes 1984, 161); We were happy; we were
unhappy; we were happy enough (Barnes 1984, 165).
At one point Braithwaite gives us a short biography of his dead wife, he
says:
She was born in 1920, married in 1940, gave birth in 1942 and 1946,
died in 1975. Ill start again. Small people are meant to be neat, arent
they; but Ellen wasnt. She was just over five feet tall, yet moved
awkwardly [...] Ill start again. She was a much-loved only child. She was
a much-loved only wife... (Barnes 1984, 162)
Folia linguistica et litteraria 191
Pure Story
This is when the novel draws to a close. Until this point as Braithwaite
announced, we were given a list of items, letters, and even insignificant details
about the life of Flaubert. The narrator seems to forget the death of his wife,
which keeps our curiosity. In reality, he has difficulty confessing. Geoffrey has so
far declined to speak directly and honestly about himself. As Ivanovi states
Braithwaite finds it easier to deal with someone elses novels, life, past, personal
tragedies and accomplishments (qtd. in Parlog 29). Braithwaite escapes facing
the pain of the loss of his wife and makes the text saturated with references to
the life and works of Flaubert.
In Pure Story, however, something changes because the narrator finally
decides to speak openly about Ellen. As already pointed out, until now every
time he was referring to his wife he did it by using ellipses, in half sentences,
192 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
suicide. The plot of Madame Bovary becomes for Braithwaite a kind of context
of interpretation of his own life story. He in some way identifies with Emmas
husband, Charles Bovary, and tries to understand Ellen better through the
character of Emma Bovary. This connection that Geoffrey finds between his sad
story and the life and works of Gustave Flaubert becomes a source of meaning
for Braithwaites life.
We come to a conclusion that the novel is about Flaubert. However,
details from Flauberts life are mingled with those the narrator tells us about his
own life. In this way, by telling the story of Gustave Flaubert, Geoffrey writes his
own autobiography.
In the last chapter the narrator arrives at the end of his journey, which
ends where it started: in Rouen. Braithwaite is in the attic of the museum, Hotel
Dieu, where he had permission to examine three other specimens of the
parrots, each of which could be borrowed by Flaubert. The question is how he
can tell which one is right. To complicate the issue, the guardian of the museum
informs Geoffrey that there are 50 other specimens of the same parrot in the
same attic. Braithwaite comes to a conclusion that both parrots said to be the
authentic ones were chosen from the fifty other parrots that were available in
the museum. And he finally sees that all of them could have been the real one.
At this point Geoffrey is totally disoriented and he concludes: Perhaps
it was one of them (Barnes 1984, 190). It is strange to have an end like this, to
have Braithwaite reach the end with nothing. In the first chapter the narrator
sees the parrot as the symbol of the writers voice, but when his search ended
without a result it defined the parrot as vague symbol of the writers voice. The
novel for the last time assures us that we can never know Flaubert. We can
never know the absolute truth. Even though we have some archive and some
relics of the past, a biographer as well as a historian can never access the
undeniable truth about past events.
In one of his interviews with Guignery, Barnes explained why he ended
the novel in such a way:
If you set up a novel in which there is a sort of symbolic chase for the
writers voice, which is eblematised in one of two parrots, I think its
only fair that the writers voice, that the feeling of getting finally in
touch with the great writer, fails in the end: let him have a little privacy,
and let him keep his secrets, I say. (qtd. in Guignery 268)
resolved in the end (50). On the other hand Scott explains that Grail-questing
knight with Braithwaites belief that the search is all (61). Braithwaite was
aware of the difficulty of interpreting the past correctly, but it didnt stop him in
his search. He was relentless in his pursuit to try to understand his loss, to try to
deal with his grief, to answer some questions about his own life. Many critics
discussed about the end of the novel. And there were usually two contrary
analyses of Braithwaites failure. One that suggests that there is no purpose of the
pursuit and other that we have to pursue and seek regardless of the result. Scott
claims that the failure to solve the mystery of the real parrot does not decline the
purpose of the quest. Braithwaite committed himself to the search, regardless of
the result. He faced the risk of discovering the secret panel to the heart that might
not open, or if it did open, it might contain nothing but a mouse skeleton (Scott
61). This is why Braithwaites failure in the end is of little importance or no
importance whatsoever.
References:
Abstract: Arundhati Roys Man-Booker award winning novel, The God of Small Things
(1997), which is armed with the invincible incorruptibility of its twins Esthappen and
Rahel, depicts the trauma of the children born out of a mixed parentage. If Esthas ordeal
can be traced back to his childhood experience of sexual molestation, then definitely, a
pristine Esthappen unknown is tormented by the separation of his parents and the brutal
killing of his role model. Esthas inaccessibility of a cognitive and conscious knowledge
about this traumatic experience ultimately turns him into a reticent personality. The
present research paper argues in detail that Esthas taciturnity is actually, a unique way of
remonstration against the societal atrocity.
In our society, in most of the cases, children are a common concern and
source of problems within mixed or inter-religious marriages that turn out to be a
failure. They might grow up feeling confused and are often treated as
marginalized entity in the society. What are more pathetic, people often ostracize
these children for no fault of their own64. At times they may also face the
tomfoolery of discrimination which is like an imperceptible injury, tricky to
eloquent or evoke in the lingo of the proclamation or substantiation.
In actual fact, these everyday forms of bigotry against the vulnerable
children and adolescents have become so pragmatic in nature that they hardly get
proper attention in the media. It is only when the prejudice against the
marginalized section of our society reaches the extreme, culminating in
despicable violence that is transparently vicious in nature that we tend to unite
against this mayhem and voice our resentment. Since literature is the mirror of
the society, so these menacing, everyday forms of inequity against the children
born out of futile inter-religious marriages find expressions through the pages of
texts as well rhymes. The horrified tales of alienation of these brood from the
normal routine life by the people representing the centre, not only disturb the
body and the mind of the readers, but it also build up anger and frustration.
Arundhati Roys Booker Award winning debut-novel, The God of Small
Things (1997) narrates the story of coercion of social institutions and of history,
64
Cf. http://marriage.rutgers.edu/Publications/pubtenthingsyoungadults.htm.Web.
198 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
over the disempowered sections of Indian society, which obviously includes the
children born out of a futile inter-religious marriage.One of the main characters in
the novel is Estha or, Esthappen Yako, who has been depicted as a child born out
of a failed inter-religious marriage. Though from a well-to-do family, Estha had a
gloomy upbringing, because right from his birth, he had been raised amidst the
squabble of his parents. His Fathers alcoholic outbursts created the real ruckus in
the family.
In the recent past, the results of several studies have shown that children
from alcoholic families report higher levels of depression and anxiety and exhibit
more symptoms of generalized stress (i.e. low self-esteem) than do children from
nonalcoholic families (Russell 1984: 2). An estimated 6.6 million children under
the age of 18 years live in households with at least one alcoholic parent. Current
research findings suggest that these children are at risk for a range of cognitive,
emotional, and behavioral problems.
After considering the reports, we can very well comprehend the real
reasons for Esthas behavioral problems from an early age. The separation of his
parents, when he was barely five years old, further aggravated the situation.
Shockingly, his fathers drunken violence followed by post drunken badgering
commenced, when he was barely two. Consequently, Estha grew up to be a
somber, bright, but somewhat apprehensive child, who wears beige and pointy
shoes and has an Elvis puff. In his growing years, Estha was so much dazed by
the musing of childhood culpability, caused by falsely incriminating his favorite
person innocently in the police station, which ultimately caused the formers
death that he hardly talked with anyone and did never protest against any
misdoing of the society.
Estha grew up with his twin sister Rahel, in a world which never accepted
them as its members, as they were children born out of inter-religious marriage.
His maternal uncle Chackos outburst at the very outset, avowaling that they have
No Locusts Stand I (57), explains the real reason for their alienation in the
family. Actually, as per the Indian societal norms all the male members born in a
family inherited the ancestral wealth, but the daughters were deprived to the
share of their parental property on the pretext that the women were gifted with
jewellery, clothes and household articles at the time of their marriage by the
parents and hence it compensated their deprivation of their ancestral wealth. In a
nutshell, the woman became an undesirable guest in her own household. As
Shirin Kudchedkar (1998, 90) rightly argues that this patriarchal set-up led to
violence against women, almost as soon as she was born and female infanticide
was prevalent in certain regions of the country.
It was just because of these norms that even in their maternal uncles
house, Estha, Rahel and their mother, were treated as outsiders, for no fault of
their own. At the age of seven only, Estha realizes that they are unsolicited guests
in his grandmothers house, which made his life more desolate at the Ayemenem
Folia linguistica et litteraria 199
House. As if this estrangement was not enough, the helpless Estha, regrettably,
encountered a detestable sexual abuse in his childhood days. The vendor selling
soft-drinks in the Cinema Hall compels or rather tactfully triggers the boy to
masturbate him. The outcome of this heinous mischief is so strong on the seven
years old child, that it profoundly sinks into his psyche and torments him,
throughout the rest of his life.
The sexual abuse of the child, a widespread terminology used in
sociological idiom, is but the other name of behavioral violence against children.
The effects of child sexual abuse can include depression, post-traumatic stress
disorder, anxiety, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_sexual_abusecite_-note-
levitan-6 susceptibility to further victimization in adulthood, and physical injury to
the child, among other problems. There is no universal definition of child sexual
abuse. However, a central characteristic of any abuse is the dominant position of
an adult that allows him or her to force or coerce a child into sexual commotion.
Child sexual abuse may include fondling a child's genitals, forced masturbation,
oral-genital contact, digital penetration, and vaginal and anal intercourse. Child
sexual abuse is not exclusively constrained to physical contact; such abuse could
include noncontact abuse, such as exposure, voyeurism, and child pornography
Besharov 1994).
Exact statistics on the frequency of child and adolescent sexual abuse are
difficult to bring together but children who are the victims of sexual abuse are
also often exposed to a variety of other stressors and difficult circumstances in
their lives. The sexual abuse and its aftermath may be only part of the child's
negative experiences and subsequent behaviors. Child sexual abuse cases can be
very hard to prove largely because cases where standard, objective evidence
exists are the exception rather than the rule. The first signs of sexual abuse may
not be physical, but rather behavioral changes or abnormalities. Unfortunately,
because it can be so difficult to accept that sexual abuse may be occurring, the
adult may misconstrue the gestures and feel that the child is simply being
insubordinate or rude (Finkelhor 1994).
As the sexual abuse of children remains a taboo word in society, Estha is
unable to share this incident with his mother. But, the ignominy of that shocking
molestation and the feeling of self-reproach arising out of it disturb Estha to such
an extent, that he feels that the Orangedrink Lemondrink Man could just walk in
through the gauze door (Roy 197) and assault him de novo. His attempt at
narrating the whole incident to his sister does not bring any solace to his
tormented soul. But definitely, being a twin sister, Rahel could comprehend the
intensity of the ill-treatment! She is unable to unlearn the traumatic experience of
Estha, even after twenty three years of their separation. She remembers, for
instance (though she had not been there), what the Orangedrink Lemondrink Man
did to Estha in Abhilash Talkies (2-3).
200 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
The unexpected molestation and many other harsh realities of life wreak
deep abrasion in Esthas vulnerable and infantile mind. These acrimonious
episodes in his early stage of life compel him to think that: (a) Anything can
happen to anyone, and (b) Its best to be prepared (194).
An analysis of an innocent Esthas thoughts process shows that he is not
only beleaguered by the aloofness of his relations at his maternal uncles house
but also with the other trepidations of his life. Actually he prepares himself to face
the worst if that happens. Later incidents prove that his fearfulness were not
completely groundless. He slowly glides away from all and sundry. Further, the
separation of his parents at a very tender age created a feeling of insecurity and
uncertainty in his mind. As a result, of this separation, his mother had not chosen
a surname as yet (36). Therefore, on his notebook Estha had rubbed out his
surname with spit, and taken half of the paper with it. Over the whole mess, he
had written in pencil un-known (157).
As a matter of fact, positive social and emotional child development
generally has been linked to fostering family settings in which caregivers are
conventional, daily routines are respected, and everyone recognizes clear
boundaries for acceptable behaviors (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Such
circumstances are often missing in the homes of single parents. It is the cold
behaviour of the Ayemenem house, aggravated by the detached attitude of his
Father, which incites Estha to introduce himself as Esthappen Unknown.
To combat this genuine problem, additional supports and intrusions are
needed to help children draw upon their vigor and make best use of their natural
talent notwithstanding their surroundings. The caring factors, such as the
involvement of other supportive adults like extended family members, mentors,
clergy, teachers, neighbors etc. may help the neglected children to lead a normal
life.
Every dark cloud has a silver lining, goes the proverb. In the desolate life
of Estha also comes a person, who acts as a friend, philosopher and guide to the
twins. He is Velutha, the low-caste carpenter in the factory of his maternal uncle,
who really loved the twins and becomes a father figure to Estha. However, this
idyllic period in the life of Estha is short lived. The moment Ammus secret liaison
with Velutha is revealed, their tranquil epoch is over. Ammu, who was locked into
her bedroom for her amorous relationship with an Untouchable, had
unintentionally shrieked at the children as the millstones round my neck!(Roy
253). An astonished Estha, who is receptive enough and knows what millstones
meant, deduced from it that both he and Rahel are unwanted and so he decides
that though it was dark and raining, the Time had come for them to run away,
because Ammu did not want them anymore (264).
Esthas plan did not include taking along their cousin Sophie into this
venture, but she persisted on joining them and she was able to convince the
younger twins to take her with them (292). Eventually their little boat collided
Folia linguistica et litteraria 201
against a floating log and tilted over. Sophie was drowned as she did not know
how to swim but the twins survived (292-93). Hence, a mere accident turned the
fate of the whole plan. Estha is held responsible for the death of Sophie and as a
consequence Estha, his sister and his mother were not allowed to attend the
funeral of Sophie Mol but, they were made to stand separately, not with the rest
of the family. Nobody would look at them (6).
The tribulation of Estha does not end here. He is tactfully coerced by Baby
Kochamma to give false evidence against Velutha at the Kottayam police station.
She is successful in convincing the boy that this was the best way to save his
Mother from the clutches of the police. A perplexed and reluctant Estha did that
accordingly, though he knew that Velutha is innocent. He is in fact, a father figure
for the twins and he actually loved them. It is also heartrending for Estha to
remember how Inspector Thomas Mathew had misbehaved with his mother and
called her Veshya (prostitute).
In his growing years, Estha very much traumatized by the memory of this
childhood guilt that he gradually turned out to be a taciturn personality in life.
Within few days after the ghastly incident, the innocent boy is separated
from his mother and sister and sends straight to his alcoholic father who barely
had any affection for him. An unwilling Estha had to return to his Father and with
the passing of the days, he abruptly stopped talking to anyone around, which was
strangely enough, a barely noticeable quietening. As though he had simply run
out of conversation and had nothing left to say. Yet Esthas silence was never
awkward. Never intrusive. Never noisy (10). Actually, Esthas silence conveyed
his inner struggle to cut himself off from the world, in order to forget his past and
ignore his pain.
Silence can be characterized as the dearth of dialogue or clamor. When
applied to the social realm, silence may mean submissiveness, lack of action, lack
of initiative, or unstated approval of one's circumstance. A more clear
understanding of the notion of silence, however, speaks of subjugated voices.
Such voices are neither scrawny, nor feeble or inoperative. Nor have they been
wiped away by other voices. Instead, they are seen to be active alongside the
prevailing discourse, but have been accorded little standing or power (Enloe
1993). In the case of Estha too, the development was not sudden. In point of fact,
Estha was tacit from his early childhood, so nobody could say exactly when the
change took place. It was the psychological equivalent of what lungfish does to
get them through the dry season, except that in Esthas case of dry season looked
as though it would lose forever (Roy 10). Acknowledged as a gradual change,
Esthas silence is regarded not merely as a state of being but rather something
that dwells inside of him, like an affliction he must live with every day:
Once the quietness arrived, it stayed and spread in Estha. It reached out
of his head and enfolded him in its swampy arms []. It sent its stealthy,
202 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
suckered tentacles inching long the insides of his skull, hovering the knolls
and dells of his memory, dislodging old sentences, whisking them off the
tip of his tongue. It stripped his thoughts of the words that described
them and left them pared and naked. Unspeakable. Numb [](13).
While staying with his Father in Kolkata, Estha became very much
attached to his dog Khubchand. As such, when his dog became ill, he was mentally
disturbed and nursed it well. However, even after his care and nursing, when the
dog died, he started walking alone for hours. Rather than again be the reason for
someones death, Estha chooses to disengage from the world. This peculiar habit
stayed with him even when he was re-returned to Ayemenem after twenty
three years by his father (12-13).
In reality, the silence, like a parasite, has made a home in the heart of
Esthas survival the silence is lodged onto Estha very firmly. He is struck quiet a la
death as an outcome of the sagacity of indignity. As the silence continues to
harbor itself in Esthas soul, he accepts it as something that should be a part of his
being. He has not only stopped talking; his mind also seems to have become bare
of any perception of die past and the current. He allows it to live within him and
continually anesthetized him. By allowing the silence to stay, Estha keeps his inner
feelings at bay. The reader in analyzing the function of Esthas silence can make a
connection with him, to recognize his need for silence as a way to deal with his
pain.
As the silence continues to harbor itself in Esthas soul, he accepts it as
something that should be a part of his being. His soundless actions give clues to
the reader about how he is feeling and what he is struggling with. For instance,
though the narrator never explains the reasons for Esthas obsessive compulsive
cleanliness, but the reader can guess easily that Esthas need to clean may be
linked to the filth he felt as a small child after being sexually abused and
witnessing incredible violence around him. Nevertheless, his obsession with
sanitation, which reminds one of Shakespeares Lady Macbeth, is formulated to
plunk against the wisdom of permanent disparagement. It seems he is continually
trying to wash off the muggy stuff from his hand. His actions act as a language
expressing his continued distress. It is only, when his sister, Rahel returns to
Ayemenem, that she tries to heal the psychic void in him, by entering into an
illegitimate corporal relation with him.
As M.K Naik puts it:
Khubchand dies, though he has nursed him through his final ordeal as
though his own life depended on it. (12)
Perhaps it is as a result of these deaths weighing on his mind that Estha starts
going on unusually long walks, not responding even when people accost him (Naik
2004, 229).
At the novels moments of Loss, in which subaltern characters become
subject to the totalizing and devastating sweep of Big Things, Silence becomes
another important trope. Spivaks famous negative answer to the question Can
the Subaltern Speak? (1988) imply that silence is a critical component of
subaltern identity. The subaltern cannot represent her/himself publicly and in an
enduring way. In his efforts to remain silent, not only does Estha refuse to speak,
it is as if his whole mind has been turned off. He does not have thoughts
constantly pouring into his conscious brain. Thus, Roys techniques serve to create
a clear understanding of a complex character.
An assiduous study of the character of Estha shows that throughout his
life, he has followed separate defense methods against each of the ordeals he has
endured. His answer to the treachery of his love for Velutha is silence. Actually, by
becoming silent he has cleared himself of the accountability for offering a
rationalization for his demeanor. Again in the later part of his life, he becomes a
reticent personality, just in order to lodge his protest in opposition to the
misdemeanor he encountered in life.
Hence, by the end of the novel, one can very easily comprehend that
Estha, in reality, uses his silence as an inimitable technique of remonstration
against the hoary brutality of the social order!
Works Cited:
Altos, C.A: The Center for the Future of Children, the David and Lucile Packard
Foundation. Print.
Besharov, D. J. Responding to child sexual abuse: The need for a balanced
approach. In R.E. Behrman. Ed. The Future of Children, 3 & 4, 1994:
135-155.
Enloe, Cynthia. The Morning After: Sexual politics at the end of the Cold War.
Berkeley, CA: U of California P: 1993: 87-89. Print.
Finkelhor, D. Answers to important questions about the scope and nature of
child sexual abuse. The Future of Children, 4(2). Los Altos, CA: David
and Lucie Packard Foundation, 1994. Print.
204 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Internet Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse.htm.Web.
http://marriage.rutgers.edu/Publications/pubtenthingsyoungadults.htm.Web.
Roman Bog malih stvari (1997) Arundati Roj, dobitnik Bukerove nagra-
de, opremljen je nesavitljivom vrlinom blizanaca Etapena i Rahele i biljei trau-
matsko odrastanje djece iz mjeovitih brakova. Ukoliko Etinu patnju moemo
pratiti nazad do trenutka seksualnog zlostavljanja u djetinjstvu, tako je, oigle-
dno, i netaknuti neznani Etapen muen razvodom roditelja i brutalnim uni-
tenjem uzornog modela. Etina nemogunost da pristupi kognitivnom i svje-
snom razumijevanju ovog traumatsog iskustva na kraju ini od njega rezervisanu
linost. Ovaj rad, prema tome, pozabavie se detaljnom analizom Etine povue-
nosti kao jedinstvenog naina sukobljavanja sa drutvenim nasilnitvom.
PREVODI / TRANSLATIONS
O KANONIMA: MUNA ISTORIJA I USPON
CRNIH FEMINISTIKIH KNJIEVNIH STUDIJA (I)
UDK 82.09:141.72
En Dusil
65
Pogledati u knjizi Sare Ivans, Lina politika: Korijeni enskog pokreta za osloboenje u pokretu za
graanska prava i Novoj ljevici (New York: Vintage, 1980), str. 24-5.
66
O ovoj temi pogledati u tekstu Kristi Farnam, Safira? Pitanje dominacije u ropskim porodicama,
1830-1865, koji je objavljen u knjizi koju su priredile Kerol Gronman i Meri Bet Norton, Rad
dugaak kao dan: Amerikanke i njihov rad, 1780-1980 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), str.
68-83; u tekstu Andele Dejvis, Refleksije o ulozi crne ene u svijetu robova, The Black Scholar
(novembar i decembar 1981), str. 3-15 (tekst je prvi put objavljen u decembru 1971, broj 3:4,).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 209
vjenavaju. Dok su bijele ene teile da se odrede izvan uloga ene i majke, crne
ene traile su slobodu koja bi im dozvolila da ive u okviru tradicionalnih rodnih
uloga, da uivaju u ljubavi prema svojim mukarcima i svojoj djeci: da stignete
do mjesta gdje moete voljeti onoga koga izaberete, napisala je Toni Morison u
Voljenoj (1987), gdje vam nije potrebna dozvola da osjetite elju.67
Javno artikulisane kampanje crnih ena u kojima su se borile za pravo da
posjeduju sopstvena tijela, sopstveni rad, svoju zemlju, svoju elju, po prvi put
su zapoete u osamnaestom vijeku, ukoliko u ovu priu ukljuimo linosti kao
to su pjesnikinja, govornica i nekadanja ropkinja Lusi Teri Prins (oko 1724-
1821). Ona je najpoznatija po sauvanoj pjesmi (Bars Fights, 1746) koja je svje-
doanstvo o indijanskom prepadu u Dirfildu, Masausets. Prins je proivjela dug
i neobian ivot u kojem je bilo mnogo izazova za preovlaujui patrijarhalni red.
Na granici u Gilfordu, Vermont, njen dom je bio, kako je ostalo zabiljeeno, sre-
dite rasprava o graanskim pravima i knjievnih aktivnosti u godinama koje su
uslijedile nakon to se udala za Bijaha Prinsa 1756. godine, osloboenog crnca
koji je kupio njenu slobodu. Godine 1785. u vrijeme kada bijele ene, uopteno
govorei, nijesu govorile na sastancima i drugim javnim forumima, niti su se
otvoreno suprotstavljale mukom autoritetu, Prins se obratila guverneru Vermo-
nta i njegovom savjetu za pomo kako bi se okonalo maltretiranje njene poro-
dice i nevolje koje im je priredio Don Nojis, bogati komija.
to je presudilo da guverner, njegovi najblii saradnici i savjetnici stanu
na stranu crne ene a ne na stranu uticajnog bijelog dravnika? to je presudilo
da uopte pristanu da sasluaju jednu crnu enu? To to nekadanja ropkinja
prema logici svoga vremena nije mogla biti svrstana u kategoriju ena (i svaka-
ko u kategoriju onoga to e kasnije biti imenovano kultom istinskog enstva),
omoguilo je gospoi Prins da pristupi javnoj sferi i pravo da govori u ime svoga
mua, to najveem broju bijelih ena ne bi bilo dozvoljeno. Takoe je istina da
iako nije bila egalitarijanska, kolonijalna granica je na odreen nain bila manje
rodno i rasno stratifikovana u osamnaestom vijeku nego to e mnoga civilizo-
vana drutva postati u devetnaestom. Ukoliko se nerigidnost rodnih konvencija
i rasnih kodova stavi po strani, legendarni govorniki dar Lusi Prins bez sumnje
joj je pomogao da ubijedi Guvernerski savjet, ali je njena dovitljivost u jednom
dijelu molbe koju je izloila u ime svoga mua i djece prevagnula. Izgleda da je
gospoa Prins navela da ukoliko guverner ne naredi optinskim odbornicima u
Gilfordu da zatite njenu porodicu od daljeg unitavanja njihove imovine i priho-
da, Prinsovi nee biti u mogunosti da se izdravaju i zavisie od gradske milosti-
nje. Drugim rijeima, gospoa Prins je pobijedila igrajui na kartu socijalne po-
moi i apelujui na optinski dep, ne na optinsku nepristrasnost.
Prins se takoe pripisuju i dva neobina podviga koji imaju karakter fe-
ministike pobune i za koje se nadaleko ulo: nastojanje da zatiti svoju zemlju i
67
Toni Morison, Voljena (New York: New American Library, 1987), str. 162.
210 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
neuspio pokuaj da prime njenog sina na koled bez obzira na pripadnost crnoj
rasi. Legenda kae i da je njena tuba protiv drugog bijelog komije, pukovnika
Eli Bronsona, stigla do Vrhovnog suda, i da je predsjedavajui, sudija Semjuel
ejs, pohvalio Prins jer je svoje argumente verbalno uobliila bolje od bilo kojeg
advokata u Vermontu. Postoje brojni sekundarni izvori o pomenutim dogaaji-
ma, ali nedostaju primarni. Prins se mogla obratiti nekom tijelu kojim su predsje-
davali bijeli mukarci voena eljom da jedan od njena tri sina dobije mogunost
da se obrazuje na visokokolskoj instituciji, i mogla je voditi raspravu sa sudijom
nekog suda mogao je to biti i vii sud. Nejasno je, ipak, da li su prisutni bili po-
vjerenici koleda Vilijam ili arbitri amerikog Vrhovnog suda, kao to nam le-
genda kazuje. Zapravo, u vrijeme kada je Vilijams bio inkorporiran kao koled
1893. godine, njeni stariji sinovi Cezar i Festus, koji su u ranijem dijelu teksta na-
vedeni kao subjekti njene molbe, mogli su imati trideset i est odnosno trideset
godina. ak i najmlai sin Abijah koji se ne pominje u ovim priama, mogao je
imati dvadeset i etiri godine. Iz jednog nedavno otkrivenog izvora saznajemo da
je institucija koja se pominje mogla biti Slobodna kola Vilijamstauna, koja je ka-
snije postala Vilijams koled, a da je zakonodavno tijelo ispred kojeg se Prins po-
javila mogao biti Okruni sud kojim je sudija Semjuel ejs predsjedavao tokom
majskih zasijedanja 1796. godine u Beningtonu, Vermont.68
Lusi Teri Prins bila je naroita pojava bez sumnje, ali nije bila jedina u to
vrijeme, kako se moe zakljuiti iz valorizovanih istorijskih izvjetaja. Ona je simbol
odlunosti i nezavisnog duha koji nijesu bili neuobiajeni meu crnim enama, ak
i ropkinjama, mnogo prije nego to je poela kampanja za enska prava 1830. i
1840. godine, i pokret za osloboenje ena iz ezdesetih i sedamdesetih godina
dvadesetog vijeka. Mnoga imena nijesu ostala zabiljeena u istorijskim zapisima,
ali veliki broj crnih ena posvetio se procesima abolicije, enskim pravima, borbi za
pravo na glas i sprovoenju borbe za rodnu, ali i rasnu jednakost.
Obraajui se mijeanoj publici u Bostonu, septembra 1832. godine, Ma-
rija Stjuart, osloboena crna ena i neumorna borkinja za jednaka prava, postala
je prva Amerikanka koja je odrala javni govor (u obzir uzimamo sve rase). Tom
prilikom ona je govorila o Pokretu za kolonizaciju, ali je bila identifikovana i kao
jedna od prvih ena roenih u Americi (opet imamo na umu sve rase), koja je
odrala predavanje na temu enskih prava.69 Zaista, mnogi eseji i govori koje je
odrala su pravi feministiki manifesti za koje je inspiraciju nalazila u znaajnim
68
Pogledati (uz druge izvore), knjigu Lorenca Donston Grina, Crni ovjek u kolonijalnoj Novoj
Engleskoj (New England: Columbia University Press, 1944, koja je u drugom izdanju objavljena sa
uvodom Bendamina Kvelsa, New York: Atheneum, 1969, str. 314-15). Istorijskih zabiljeki nema
puno, ali zahvaljujui biografskom pamfletu Dejvida Ropera na dobar nain se odvajaju
dokumentovane injenice od proze koja je u opticaju. Pogledati u knjizi Dejvida R. Ropera, Lusi Teri
Prins: Pjesnikinja istorije (Deerfiled, MA: Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association, 1997).
69
Merilin Riardson, ur., Marija V. Stjuart, prva amerika crna politika spisateljka (Bloomington
Indiana University Press, 1987).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 211
70
Citirano u knjizi Keneta M. Stempa, Neobina institucija: Ropstvo na predratnom jugu (New
York: Knopf, 1956), str. 352.
71
Roman Vilijama Velsa Brauna iz 1853. godine pod naslovom Klotel; ili, predsjednikova kerka,
objavljen je est godina prije romana Na crnac, ali u Londonu. Ipak, status koji roman Na crnac
ima (prvi roman koji je objavila jedna Afroamerikanka), nedavno je doveden u pitanje otkriem i
autentifikacijom, takoe od strane Gejtsa, romana Pria jedne zatoenice, za koji se vjeruje da ga
je tokom pete decenije devetnaestoga vijeka napisala crna ena pod imenom Hana Krafts.
72
Hariet E. Vilson, Na crnac: ili, skice iz ivota osloboenog crnca. Henri Luj Gejts je priredio tu
knjigu i napisao predgovor za nju (New York: Vintage, 1983), str. xii.
212 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
73
Frensis Smit Foster, Nepredvieni dogaaji, u knjizi Debore M. Garfild i Rafije Safar (ur.)
Dogaaji iz ivota mlade ropkinje (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), str. 61-2.
74
Frensis E.V. Harper, Dvije ponude, prireeno u antologiji En Elen okli, Afroamerike
spisateljke, 1746-1933: Antologija i kritiki prirunik (New York: New American Library, 1989), str.
65. Dvije ponude su bile originalno objavljene u nastavcima 1859. godine.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 213
75
Dejn Rouds, Meri En ed Keri, Crna tampa i protest u devetnaestom vijeku (Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1998), str. xiv-xv.
76
En Elen okli, Crna lezbijka u amerikoj knjievnosti: Pregled, u knjizi koju je priredila Barbara
Smit pod naslovom Djevojke iz komiluka: Antologija crnog feminizma (New York: Kitchen Table
Women of Color Press, 1983), str. 83.
77
Kerolajn Silvander, Desi Redmond Foset, crna amerika spisateljka (Troy, NY: Whitson, 1981),
str. 5.
78
Elizabet Amons, Nekompatibilne prie: amerike spisateljke na prijelazu u dvadeseti vijek (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1991), str. 23.
214 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
79
Pogledati u knjizi Elinor Fleksner, Vijek borbe: Pokret za enska prava u Sjedinjenim Dravama,
rev. edn. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975), str. 147.
80
Elizabet V. Spelman, Manje vana ena: Problemi marginalizacije u feministikoj misli (Boston:
Beacon Press, 1988), str. 13.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 215
81
Ovi napori ukljuuju paralelno pisanje ili, makar, mijenjanje maskuliniteta u naracijama. Ono to
se podrazumijevalo u ranim hrianskim tekstovima sada postaje glavna tema feministikih i
homoseksualnih teoretiara. Prelazak sa enskih studija na rodne studije na mnogim
amerikim univerzitetima predstavlja simptom ovog razvoja.
216 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
vati i na taj nain i kritikovati, onu koju feministkinje ele promijeniti. ak i oni
naizgled kritiki nesamosvjesni oblici feminizma ukljuujui one koji estoko
odbacuju teoriju kao nesigurnu, zbunjujuu ili ak apolitinu pripovijedaju o
ovom raskidu sa ideologijom enstvenosti, o ovom razdoru one jasnosti enskog
subjektiviteta. U toku postupka koji je nekada bio dio zdravog razuma da
smo ene javlja se kao mjesto ispitivanja i politikog djelovanja. Simon de Bo-
voar opisuje ovaj pokret kao odbacivanje naturalizacije kategorije ene: enom
se ne raa, enom se postaje. U postupku otkrivanja ideolokog rada koji se ve-
zuje za postanak ene/ena, teorija i praksa se intimno proimaju u okviru polja
samog politikog djelovanja.
ak i za one koji su ubijeeni da teorija uvijek funkcionie u svakom fe-
ministikom djelovanju, korak od opte rasprave ili teorije u ime feminizma ili
osloboenja ena ka ue usredsreenijoj feministikoj knjievnoj kritici ne pred-
stavlja neto to bi bilo od sporednog znaaja. Postoje oigledne razlike izmeu
teorijskog raskida koji denaturalizuje potinjenost ena u porodici ili koja razo-
tkriva seksualne mitove o enskoj pasivnosti ili standardnoj heteroseksualnosti i
onaj teorijski rad koji se fokusira na knjievna naela, odnosu izmeu pola i
anra, ili pitanje enskog stila. Kako pokuavamo da artikuliemo ove razliite
teorije, pozicija brojnih knjievno-kritikih oblika feminizma u okviru univerziteta
dodatno komplikuje stvari samim tim to bi ova pozicija oznaila priznavanje
akademske orijentacije feministikoj knjievnoj teoriji. Ovdje dolazi do izraaja
jo jedna logina pretpostavka, odnosno ona kojom se tvrdi da ono to mi po-
drazumijevamo pod terminom politiko treba da se shvati doslovno kao i da je
oito da tumaenja knjievnih djela nijesu doslovno politika: takva tumaenja
ne biraju voe, ne donose zakone niti vladaju ustavnim pitanjima ili stvaraju
dravnu politiku. Poput drugih shvatanja za koja se tvrdi da se oslanjaju na zdrav
razum i ovoj se tvrdnji teko moemo suprotstaviti.
S druge strane, postoje i drugi naini za interpretaciju ove hijerarhije po-
litikih oblika. Sama injenica da feministika knjievna kritika pronalazi svoje
mjesto na akademiji (u nekim sredinama) izgleda da refleksivno izaziva sumnju
da je, u najmanju ruku, politiki marginalna, odnosno da je njen predmet samo
akademski. (Ovo je svakako istina kada su SAD u pitanju.) Istovremeno, uprkos
rairenosti takvih sumnji, jo uvijek mnogi naunici/naunice smatraju da je lo-
gino da su misli, analize ili ak nagaanja knjievnih teoretiara/teoretiarki koji
se bave pitanjima roda, polne razliitosti ili maskulinistikih ideologija, usko po-
vezana sa politikim projektima i organizacijama koje se bave enskim pitanjima
u stvarnom svijetu; ova pretpostavka, vie nego vjerodostojna, ima vrijednost
neega to je ve poznato i ustanovljeno.
Dajana Fas govori o tvrdoglavosti i vrijednosti ovakvog shvatanja u za-
kljuku svog ispitivanja politike feministikog tumaenja, itati feministiki.
Fas analizira rasprave o osnovama feministike kritike, prvo u smislu esencija-
listikog pogleda na ene kao klasu koja se fundamentalno razlikuje od muka-
Folia linguistica et litteraria 217
82
Diana Fuss, Reading Like a Feminist, u Naomi Schor i Elizabeth Weed, eds., The Essential
Difference (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), str.112.
83
Vidjeti kod Dale Spender, ed., Mens Studies Modified: The Impact of Feminism on Academic
Disciplines (Oxford: Pergamen Press, 1981); Ellen Carolyn DeBois, Gail Pardise Kelly, Elizabeth
Lapovsky Kennedy: Carolyn W. Korsmeyer Lillian S. Robinson, Feminist Scholarship: Kindling in the
Groves of Academe (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987) i Ellen Messer-Davidow, Disciplining
Feminism (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002).
218 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
84
Vidjeti kod Naomi Schor, The Righting of French Studies, u djelu Schor-ove, Bad Objects:
Essays Popular and Unpopular (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995).
85
Vidjeti kod Gazele Greene i Coppelia Kahn, eds., Changing Subjects: The Making of Feminist
Literary Criticism (London: Routledge, 1993). Unosim epitet ,,oit kako bih izbjegla implikaciju da
u rajskoj (i na taj nain nepovratno izgubljenoj prolosti), politika feministike kritike nije bila tema
rasprava. Uopteno govorei, prolost nije bila prijatnija kada su stvari bile kakve su bile.
Razmatrajui sluaj iz SAD prikazala bih tri svoja zapaanja vezana za istoriju konflikta meu
feministikim kritiarkama: 1. u ranim godinama feministike kritike institucionalizacije, naunici
su se estoko raspravljali, ali su osjeali da su snano vezani za ,,Pokret; 2. status teorije kao takve
bio je tema rasprave unutar i van univerziteta; 3. dok se sprovodila politika intelektualnog rada,
svae u vezi sa takvim politikama su se gomilale. Vidjeti kod Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad:
Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989) i
Katie King, Theory in its Feminist Travels: Conversations in U.S. Womens Movements
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 219
Djelo Milet bilo je zamiljeno, i iroko prihvaeno, kao rasprava u ime fe-
ministike seksualne revolucije. Meu pohvalama koje je dobilo, na naslovnoj
strani knjige stoji: izuzetno znaajno djelo koje oznaava kraj tiranije polnih ulo-
ga. Sa tolikom otvorenom moi da se bori protiv tiranije, da srui mo stereo-
tipnih polnih uloga, kao jedne od njenih osobina, jasno je da Seksualna politika
nije smatrala sebe ogranienom poljem svojih knjievnih prouavanja. Revolu-
cionarna feministika kritika bila je centralni dio njene politike strategije.
Mutacija koju prikazuje kritika praksa Milet sastoji se u njenom insi-
stiranju da kao to pol ima esto zanemaren politiki aspekt tako ga ima i knji-
86
Vidjeti kod Kate Millet u djelu Sexual Politics (New York: Double Day, 1970), str. 176-89 i str.
157-76.
220 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
evnost (str. xi).87 Ovaj zanemareni politiki aspekt knjievnosti bio je jedna od
glavnih tema feministike kritike. Njeno djelo predstavlja primjer eksplicitnosti
kojom su mnoge rane feministike kritiarke u okviru akademije kao i u okviru
opte kulture kritike nekog djela stvarale svoj knjievno-kritiki projekat kao
oblik politikog djelovanja, doslovno kao politiku akciju. Naravno, ne treba uzi-
mati ovakve optimistine i samouvjerene izjave doslovno onako pozitivno kako
one vjerovatno zvue. Raskid sa tiranijom koju su nametale polne uloge a koji je
obeavalo djelo Seksualna politika jo je u toku, na veoma raznolikim mjestima.
Ali ubjeenje koje su mnoge kritiarke i teoretiarke knjievnosti prihvatile da
je njihov rad ustvari sredstvo tada cvjetajueg enskog pokreta bilo je iroko
prihvaeno, ukljuujui, u najveoj mjeri, i one najglasnije protivnike bilo kakve
inovacije kakva je feministika knjievna teorija.
Prolo je vie od 30 godina od kada su se pojavili prvi pokuaji femini-
stike knjievne kritike u akademskim krugovima. Ona je od tada postala jedna
od glavnih kritikih komponenti knjievnih izuavanja u mnogim univerzitetskim
sredinama. Moda je teko, iz perspektive 21. vijeka, ak i prisjetiti se kako je na-
silan, prezriv i poniavajui bio otpor prema tvrdnjama feministike kritike u tim
ranim godinama ovoga pokreta kada bi ak i pisanje disertacije na temu bilo koje
spisateljke osim nekoliko njih koje su bile odobrene (kao Dejn Ostin ili Emili
Dikinson u SAD) izazivalo skandal. Preispitivati sadraj naeg knjievnog kanona,
iznova procjenjivati estetska dostignua spisateljki, ispitivati nae vlastite estet-
ske vrijednosti i kriterijume i istraivati igru rodnih razliitosti i seksizma u knji-
evnim djelima iz svih perioda, i to od strane ena i mukaraca podjednako sve
je to u poetku doekano sa podsmjehom i duboko usaenim neprijateljstvom.
Ovaj je otpor bio jasno politiki, jaajui odbranu intelektualnih prioriteta patri-
jarhata. Ovo je podrazumijevalo podrku stvaranju razliitih ideologija muke su-
periornosti, dominacije i rodnih stereotipa (otkrivenih u knjievnosti a naroito
upadljivo u knjievnoj kritici i teoriji; takoe je zahtijevalo neposredniju (teo-
rijsku i praktinu) odbranu vidova kritike, koncepata i kanona koje je njegovalo
nastavno osoblje (koje je uglavnom, iako ne u potpunosti, bilo mukog pola)
koje je tada kontrolisalo knjievna izuavanja i njihove oblasti na univerzitetu i u
javnoj sferi.
Pojava femistikih knjievnih izuavanja na ovaj nain je ustanovljena
kao otvoreno i jasno politika u oima njenih najranijih predstavnika, djelimino
zbog toga to je neprijateljstvo koje je izazivala bilo u velikoj mjeri politike pri-
rode. Niko od onih koji su uestvovali na bilo kojoj od sukobljenih strana ne bi tu
87
Komentari o zapostavljanju koje daje Milet obiljeavaju njen tekst; danas svaka tvrdnja da pol
ima bilo kakav aspekt koji na neki nain nije politiki predstavlja provokativan stav. Buova
administracija, nastojei da opravda otkazivanje godinje parade homoseksualaca koju odravaju
zaposleni u Ministarstvu pravde, nedavno je objavila da predsjednik ,,ne vjeruje da treba
politizovati seksualno opredjeljenje (New York Times, June 7, 2003, str. A7.).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 221
88
Rita Felski smatra da se ovakvi napadi nastavljaju sve do kasnih devedesetih i da ni sada nijesu u
potpunosti nestali. Vidjeti u njenoj knjizi Literature After Feminism (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2003), str 1-22.
89
Vidjeti kod Louis Althusser,Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, u Althusser, Lenin and
Philosophy and Other Essays, prev. Ben Brewster (New York Monthly Review Press, 1971), str.
127-86, za ideologiju kao nesvesno i nain na koji ideoloki ,,subjekti rade sami (str. 18); i Capital
to Marxs Philosophy, u Louis Althusser i Etienne Balibar, Reading Capital (London: Verso, 1970),
str 11-70, za kritiku mita nevinog tumaenja (str. 14).
222 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
90
Susan Gubar, Critical Condition: Feminism at the Turn of the Century (New York: Columbia
University Press, 2000), str. 104. Vidjeti moj uvod za ovu knjigu za detaljniju raspravu o eseju Lilian
Robinson, Feminist Criticism: How Do We Know When We Won?
91
Pogledati moj uvod u reakciju Lillian Robinson na modernizovanje feministikih rasprava i
predmeta istraivanja osamdesetih godina.
224 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
92
Chandra Talpande Mohanty, Feminism Without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing
Solidarity (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), str. 6. Jennifer Wickes Celebrity Material:
Materialist Feminism and the Culture of Celebrity, SAQ 93:4 (1994), str. 751-758 kae da podjela
akademski feminizam/feminizam pokreta (movement feminism) nije vie ni vana ni privlana u
amerikom kontekstu jer ne postoji feminizam pokreta u SAD. Feministika politika postoji ali je
drugaije organizovana. Biljeenje nedostatka politike pokreta ne bi trebalo protumaiti kao
kritiku ili ubjeivanje ve kao opaanje koje nam moe pomoi da objasnimo onu prazninu koju
feminizam poznatih (celebrity feminism) djelimino ispunjava (str. 752-3).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 225
93
Pogledati kod Catherine MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified: Discouses on Life and Law
(Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1987). Za suprotno gledite pogledati kod bell hooks,
Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (Boston South End Press, 1984); Denise Riley, Am I That
Name? Feminism and the Category of Women in History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press, 1988); Elizabeth Spelman, Inessential Woman: Problems of Exclusion in Feminist Theory
(Boston Beakon Press, 1989) i Gayatri Spivak, In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics (New
York: Methuen, 1987).
94
Gayatry Chakravorty Spivak, The Problems of Cultural Self Representation, u Sarah Harasym,
ed., The Postcolonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues (New York: Routledge, 1990), str. 58.
226 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
95
Materijalizam predstavlja esto osporavani termin u feministikoj teoriji koji opisuje rad koji
opisuje djelovanje koje se kree od drutvenih feminizama sedamdesetih do materijalistikog
pitanja u djelu Judith Butler, Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex (New York:
Routledge, 1993). Pogledati kod Toril Moi i Janice Radway, eds., Materialist Feminism, posebno
izdanje SAQ 93 (1994); i Theresa L. Ebert, Ludic Feminism and After: Postmodernism, Desire and
Labour in Late Capitalism (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press), 1996.
96
Barbara Johnson, A World of Difference (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987),
str. 31.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 227
97
Vidjeti kod Ann Snitow, A Gender Diary u Marianne Hirsh i Evelin Fox Keller, eds., Conflicts in
Feminism (New York: Routledge, 1990), str 9.
98
Gayatry Chakravorty Spivak, A Critique of Postcolonial Reason (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1999, str. 256).
228 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
99
Riley, Am I That Name? (str. 113-14)
Folia linguistica et litteraria 229
100
Rosemary Hennessy, Materialist Feminism and the Politics of Discourse (New York: Routledge,
1993), str. 3.
230 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
101
Parveen Adams i Elizabeth Cowie, eds., The Woman in Question (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1990), str. 103.
232 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
102
Judith Butler and Joan W. Scott, eds., Feminists Theorize the Political (New York and London:
Routledge, 1992), str. 385-403.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 233
23
Jedan suprotan primjer bi mogao biti Take Back the Night marevi koji su bili popularni u
razliitim gradovima i mnogim amerikim kampovima.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 235
bia kao nepokretne upljine, moemo poeti da zamiljamo ensko tijelo podlo-
no promjeni, mogui objekat straha i uzrok nasilja (str. 400). Da bi se stvorila
polna razlika, iji se krajnji oblik ne moe unaprijed znati, treba zagaziti u teoriju
koja nije smiljena u scenario silovanja i njegovoj naraciji, odbiti da se nasilju da
imunitet koji pokuava da dobije iz predstave, unititi realnost zdravog razuma
koja polno odreuje seksualno nasilje i izgraditi drugu.
Mjesto feministike teorije u ovom neprestanom razgraivanju i pono-
vnom graenju nije marginalno. Njeno uplitanje se ne sukobljava sa politikom
posveenou ili stavom, ve propisuje jednu postojanu kritiku, kako to formu-
lie Spivak, djelovanja predstave u naem iskustvu stvarnog. Njena tumaenja
otkrivaju stepen sputanosti, iskljuivanja i negacija na jednom esto surovom te-
renu gdje svaka feministika politika i dalje mora da nastavlja sa radom i u sa-
mom pruanju predstave, ukljuujui i vlastitu. Zapoela sam ovaj esej jednim
zdravorazumnim shvatanjem da su feministika teorija i feministika politika
veoma bliske. Na samom njegovom kraju, usudiu se da zakljuim da ova bli-
skost i dalje opstaje s tom razlikom da smo izgubili njenu bezgrenost.
Preporuena literatura:
Hortense Spillers, Black, White and in Color: Essays on American Literature and
Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003)
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History
of the Vanishing Present (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
1999).
NA ZAJEDNIKOM TLU ?
FEMINISTIKA TEORIJA I KRITIKA STUDIJA RASE
UDK 141.72
Rami Varma
Pitanje koje je postavila Soderner Trut (Saputnica istine) u Americi 19. vi-
jeka zar ja nijesam ena? predstavlja rani i kljuni trenutak prepoznavanja
kompetitivnih reima identifikacije, sa kojima se crna ena kroz istoriju morala
boriti: reima rase i roda (pogledati esej En Dusil u Kembridovom priruniku za fe-
ministiku teoriju). Sto godina kasnije, Anita Hil mogla je postaviti slino pitanje
zar ja nijesam crnkinja (moj italik)? Anita Hil je pravnica koja se 1991. suprotstavila
prijedlogu da Klarens Tomas bude izabran za sudiju amerikog vrhovnog suda
bio bi to tek drugi sluaj u istoriji sudstva. Optuba Anite Hil da ju je Tomas se-
ksualno zlostavljao i te kako je skrenula panju javnosti na ionako kontroverznog
Tomasa, uvenog po suprotstavljanju afirmativnoj politici i abortusu. Optuba Hil
zapravo je glasila crna ena tereti crnog ovjeka za seksualno zlostavljanje; taj
crni ovjek je kandidat za sudiju vrhovnog suda. Iako zatakavano od strane me-
dija, vlasti, aktivista i predstavnika akademske sredine, glavno pitanje u ovome sl-
uaju zapravo se odnosilo na afilijaciju crnih ena. Naime, da li treba podrati To-
masa ili Anitu koja je raskrinkala ne samo njegove line neuspjehe, ve i rasistiki
seksizam kompletnog establimenta: politikog, pravnog, medijskog. Taj establi-
ment je elio predstaviti Anitu kao osvetoljubivu i labilnu enu.
Mnogi liberali, konzervativci, kao i Afroamerikanci, podrali su Tomasa
uz opravdanje da crnci inae zauzimaju mali broj vanih pozicija. Sa druge stra-
ne, na Tomasa su se obruile organizacije za zatitu graanskih prava, kao i femi-
nistike organizacije poput Nacionalne organizacije za unaprijeenje ivota
crnaca (NAACP) ili Nacionalne organizacije ena (NOW). Ove grupe bile su ozlo-
jeene Tomasovom borbom protiv afirmativnih projekata, kao i abortusa. elje-
le su i da se seksualno zlostavljanje shvati ozbiljno.
Mnoge afroamerike naunice, naroito one okrenute feministikoj poli-
tici, trudile su se da povodom ovog sluaja iznesu prilino ograniene stavove na
raun rasne solidarnosti. Zapravo su htjele podrati ovjeka koji je, iako crnac,
bio u potpunosti posveen vaenju stomaka svim pozitivnim stvarima u okviru
Folia linguistica et litteraria 239
104
Kimberl Crenshaw, Neil Gotanda, Gary Peller, Kendall Thomas (ur.), Kritika teorija rase:
krucijalni tekstovi koji su osnovali pokret (New York: The New Press, 1995), str. xxxi
105
Ibid., str. xxxi
240 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
106
Ibid., str. xxvi
107
Ibid., str. xv
108
Pogledati: Hazel Carby, Rekonstrukcija enskog svijeta: dolazak afroamerike spisateljke (New
York, Oxford University Press, 1987) teoretisanje crnih feministikih intelektualki iz 19. vijeka.
Bitan izvor za upoznavanje sa politikim i knjievnim doprinosom crnkinja je knjiga Gerde Lerner
(ur.), Crnkinje u bijeloj Americi: dokumentarna istorija (New York, Vintage, 1973).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 241
109
Alice Walker, U potrazi za vrtovima naih majki, Ms. Magazine, 1974; Barbara Smith, Ka
crnoj feministikoj kritici, u: Okolnosti: dva 1:2 (oktobar 1977), str. 157-75; Barbara Christian,
Crna feministika kritika: perspektive o crnim spisateljkama (New York: Pergamon Press, 1985).
110
Meu najranijim antologijama drugog talasa crnog feminizma je Toni Cade (ur.), Crna ena
(New York: New American Library, 1970). Slijede: Mary Helen Washington (ur.), Modrooke Suzane
(New York: Anchor Press, 1975); Gloria T. Hull, Patricia Bell Scott, Barbara Smith (ur.), Sve ene su
bijele, svi crnci su ljudi, samo su neki od nas hrabri (Old Westbury, NY: Feminist Press, 1982).
111
Deborah McDowell, Novi putevi crne feministike kritike (1980), u: Elaine Showalter (ur.),
Nova feministika kritika: eseji o enama, knjievnosti i teoriji (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985),
str. 186-99; Carby, Rekonstrukcija enskog svijeta.
112
Smith, Ka crnoj feministikoj kritici, str. 163.
113
Toni Morrison, Ples u tami: bijela rasa i knjievna imaginacija (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1993), str. xx
242 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
114
Carby, Rekonstrukcija enskog svijeta, str. 6.
115
Ibid.
116
Combahee River Collective, Iskaz Combahee River kolektiva: organizovanje crnih feministkinja
70-ih i 80-ih (New York: Kitchen Table Press, 1986), str. 12-13.
117
Deborah King, Mnogostruke opasnosti, mnogostruke svjesnosti: kontekst crne feministike
ideologije, Znakovi: asopis za ene, kulturu i drutvo 14:1 (avgust), str. 71, str. 47.
118
Pogledati takoe: bell hooks, Zar ja nijesam ena? (Boston: South End Press, 1981).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 243
119
Rose M. Brewer, Teoretisanje rase, klase i pola, u: Rosemary Hennessy, Chrys Ingraham (ur.),
Materijalistiki feminizam: o klasi, razlikama i ivotima ena (New York, London: Routledge, 1997),
str. 238. Pogledati takoe: Angela Davis, Rasa i klasa (New York: Vintage, 1983).
120
Ovo je istorijski tano. Za vrijeme ropstva crnkinje su stopostotno predstavljale radnu snagu, i
sve do 80-ih godina 20. vijeka njihov broj, kao radne snage, premaivao je broj bijelkinja.
121
Pogledati: Daniel P. Moynihan, Crnaka porodica: sluaj za nacionalnu akciju (Office of Policy
Planning and Research, United States Department of Labor, Washington DC: Government Printing
Office, 1965). Za raniju kritiku pogledati: Robert Staples, Mit o crnom matrijarhatu, u: Staples,
Crnaka porodica: eseji i studije (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1971); Staples, Crna ena u Americi
(Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1973). Za drugaije perspektive, koje vide crnkinju kao lienu feministike
svijesti, pogledati: Michele Wallace, Crni mao i mit o supereni (New York: Dial, 1979).
122
Za zaista koristan prikaz kompleksnosti rase i politike socijalnog staranja pogledati: Margaret B.
Wilkerson, Jewell Handy Gresham, Rasizovanje siromatva, u: Alison M. Jagger, Paula S.
Rothenberg (ur.), Feministiki okviri: alternativni teorijski prikaz odnosa ene i ovjeka (New York:
McGraw Hill, 1993).
244 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
123
Pogledati: Brewer, Teoretisanje rase, str. 247.
124
Pogledati: Barbara Ehrenreich, Annette Fuentes, ene u globalnoj industrji (Boston: South End
Press, 1984) za prikaz naina na koje je globalni kapitalizam izrabljivao ljude na rasnoj i polnoj
osnovi, tako to je ene Treeg svijeta zapoljavao u eksploatatorskim fabrikama. Za rani, pionirski
rad, pogledati: Maria Mies, Domaice proizvode za svjetsko trite: proizvoai ipke u Narsapuru
(Geneva: International Labor Office, 1980); Mies, Patrijarhat i akumulacija na svjetskom nivou:
ene u internacionalnoj podjeli rada (London: Zed Press, 1986). Pogledati takoe: Swasti Mitter,
Zajednika sudbina, zajednika veza: ena u globalnoj ekonomiji (London: Pluto Press, 1986).
125
Pogledati: Patricia Hill Collins, Crna feministika misao: znanje, svijest, politika enskog pokreta
(Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990).
126
Za zanimljivu, inspirativnu teoriju iskustva pogledati: Joan Scott, Iskustvo, u: Judith Butler,
Joan Scott (ur.), Feministkinje o politici (New York, London: Routledge, 1992); Paula Moya, Uenje
iz iskustva: politika, epistemologija i chicano identitet (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 245
127
Gloria Anzalda, Cherre Moraga (ur.), Ovaj most zvani moja lea: pismo radikalnih obojenih
ena (New York: Kitchen Table-Women of Color Press, 1983 [1981]), str. 5.
246 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
128
Pogledati: Ovaj most zvani moja lea, str. 5.
129
Ova ideja e se iskomplikovati, jer nijesu sve ene Treeg svijeta obojene, niti sve obojene ene
pripadaju Treem svijetu. Bijelkinje sa Kariba i iz Latinske Amerike, kao i ene iz naprednih
kapitalistikih zemalja koje ne pripadaju bijeloj rasi, poput Japanki, ne zauzimaju znaajno mjesto
u okviru kategorija Treeg svijeta i obojenih ena.
130
Rosario Morales, Svi dijelimo istu sudbinu, u: Anzalda, Moraga (ur.), Ovaj most, str. 91.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 247
jednicom, a koje su bile potinjene u irem kontekstu amerikog drutva. Isto ta-
ko, identitet bijele feministkinje objedinjavao je za obojene feministkinje i tira-
nina i tiranisanog. Ipak, pokret obojenih ena nije se generalno elio suprotsta-
vljati linom; cilj je bio artikulisati razliita shvatanja linog, koje se nije u potpu-
nosti zasnivalo na autonomnom subjektu liberalnog feminizma. Moraga naglaa-
va kako su izrazito lina pitanja, poput ljubavi, seksualnosti, porodice, zapravo
i te kako politika, i spadaju u ideoloke domene socijalne sile.131 U cilju osnai-
vanja pokreta, obojene ene organizovale su pjesnike radionice, kreativne se-
sije za kuhinjskim stolom, bavile se vrtlarstvom i vizuelnom umjetnou, kako bi
ojaale tradiciju zajednice. eljele su poruiti da kreativnost nije buroaski odu-
ak za svekoliku tjeskobu, ve stvar samog opstanka, ba kao i politika pitanja
stanovanja, slubovanja, legalnog abortusa, zdravstva.
U politici obojenih ena znaajno mjesto zauzimalo je i samo tijelo. Nji-
hov imperativ da govore o ivom iskustvu o onom to Moraga naziva meso
ovih ena (str. xviii) elaborirano je upravo u njenoj teoriji mesa: to je pro-
stor, kae ona, gdje se fizike realnosti naeg ivota boja nae koe, na ko-
mad zemlje ili beton na kojem smo odrastale, nae seksualne udnje sve sliva-
ju u jedno, da oblikuju politiku izraslu iz nunosti (str. 23). Zadatak multikultu-
ralnog feminizma bio je da teoriju individualnog potinjavanja prenese na pra-
ktini ivot, na ivo iskustvo rasizma, potinjavanja, homofobije, siromatva,
seksizma.
Stav da se analiza rasizma i homofobije mora izvoditi iz tijela, prisutna je
i u djelima mnogih bijelih antirasistikih feministkinja. Mini Brus Prat, opisujui
raanje svoje feministike i antirasistike svijesti na amerikom jugu, odreuje
identitet kao kou, krv, srce.132 Glavni doprinos bijelih spisateljica, poput
Prat, bio je prepoznavanje bijele boje kao rasne kategorije, i kao nevidljive ali
sveproimajue norme, koja dijeli karakteristike heteroseksualizma. U potresnoj
prii o bolnom djetinjstvu u rasistikoj porodici, i o suprotstavljanju ultradesni-
arskim rasistikim pokretima na jugu, 80-ih godina 20. vijeka, Mab Segrest vrlo
konkretno, putem tijela, govori o svojoj teorijskoj i politikoj svijesti.133 Ona pie:
Kad je rasistiko nasilje u Alabami buknulo, poput ozljeda na rukama moje
majke, nije me iznenadilo kad sam shvatila da se sve svodi na boju koe (3).
Opet, kao antirasistika aktivistkinja i feministkinja, Segrest je svjesna da stvari
ne treba da se svode na boju koe, jer ta pria podrazumijeva mogunost soli-
darnosti. Ipak, dok boja ne postane nebitna stvar, ona eli govoriti o svojoj ra-
zarajuoj istoriji, o bolu i nasilju, unitenju, izdaji ali isto tako i o iscjeljenju i afi-
lijacijama. Samo putem raskrinkavanja rasizma, putem pisanja o rasi i porodici,
intimnom i istorijskom, praktinom i teorijskom, o Marvinu Segrestu, roaku,
131
Pogledati: Moraga, Duga istorija rasprodaje, u: Jaggar, Rothenberg (ur.), Feministiki okviri.
132
Minnie Bruce Pratt, Pobuna: eseji 1980-1991 (Ithaca: Firebrand Books, 1991).
133
Mab Segrest, Memoari jednog rasnog izdajnika (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
248 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
bijelom rasisti; i o mladom crnom aktivisti Semiju Jangu, koga je Marvin ubio u
napadu divlje mrnje ona moe ujediniti svoje politiko angaovanje i elju da
promijeni svijet. Govorei istovremeno o antirasizmu i izdaji, Segrest analizira
granice poimanja identiteta iskljuivo u kontekstu boje koe.
Politika uloga multikulturalnog feminizma, onako kako je predstavljena
u djelima Mab Segrest i Mini Brus Prat, shvatana je takoe kao pedagoki impe-
rativ. Radei protiv samoprezira, otuivanja, nevidljivosti, eljele su pouiti kako
se mijenja svijet sve one koji ive sa kontradikcijama bilo u smislu klase, boje
koe ili seksualnosti. Ovaj most kao da je zapoeo disidentski i alternativni proje-
kat, koji je krio sebi put do akademije i istovremeno se nadvijao nad obinim,
svakodnevnim ivotom obojenih ena. Kao odgovor na pouku Odre Lord, da go-
spodarevo orue nikad ne moe razoriti gospodarevu kuu same urednice su
knjigu opisale kao revolucionarno orue koje moe unititi postojee strukture
dominacije.
Mnoge autorke obraivale su ista pitanja u djelu koje se moe smatrati
nastavkom prethodno pomenutog. Naime, rije je o knjizi pod nazivom Obliko-
vanje izraza, oblikovanje due: kreativne i kritike perspektive obojenih femini-
stkinja (1990).134 Ako je Ovaj most bio pokuaj razbijanja utanja i stavljanja
akcenta na oito odsustvo obojene ene u nacionalnoj prii, skoro deceniju ka-
snije Oblikovanje izraza reagovalo je na neke (ne)planirane posljedice poetne
faze razvijanja pokreta. Promijenivi izraz obojene ene u obojene feministki-
nje, s ciljem da se pokretu da politika nota, ova zbirka poezije, eseja i kritikih
tekstova, pokuala je da izvri revalorizaciju multikulturalnog feminizma i di-
rektnije se postavi prema sili institucije i kritikom establimentu. Devedestih
godina multikulturalizam je ve uveliko ivio pod okriljem preovladavajueg, li-
beralnog poretka, koji je vidio sebe pod opsadom za vrijeme Reganove ekono-
mske privatizacije i kulturnog konzervatizma. Meutim, ak i u konzervatizmu,
multikulturalizam se prepoznavao kao efikasna politika, koja je uporno odra-
vala razliite klasne i rasne frakcije, u okviru hegemonistike perspektive da je
amerika nacija dominantno bijela.
Tako je 90-ih godina multikulturalizam preao iz opozicione u zvaninu
politiku, uao na amerike univerzitete i izazvao studentski aktivizam i planske
reformistike pokrete, uglavnom reaktivne prirode. Svakako, ovaj prelaz tipino
je podrazumijevao odreene forme pristajanja i prilagoavanja. Nadvladavanje
rasnog jezika, pa time i rasizma, zapravo je znailo da se multikulturalizam mo-
e shvatiti kao ni manje ni vie nego kao kompleksniji oblik nacionalizma, koji
uva nacionalne granice u svijetu bez granica,135 kako kae Ien Ang.
134
Gloria Anzalda (ur.), Oblikovanje izraza, oblikovanje due: kreativne i kritike perspektive
obojenih feministkinja (San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books, 1990).
135
Ien Ang, O negovorenju kineskog (London: Routledge, 2001), str. 15-16.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 249
136
Norma Alarcon, Teorijski subjekti Ovog mosta i angloameriki feminizam, u: Anzalda (ur.),
Oblikovanje izraza, str. 356-69.
137
Pogledati: Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Zapadnim oima: feministiko obrazovanje i kolonijalni
diskursi, u: Mohanty, Ann Russo, Lourdes Torres (ur.), ene Treeg svijeta i politika feminizma
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
250 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Bijela i srednja klasa su vrsta politike. Boja i klasa ne odreuju ljude ili poli-
tiku... Rasizam je ideologija. Svako moe biti rasista, bez obzira na boju ko-
e ili okolnosti, samo to su neki od nas skloni rasistikim napadima. Razu-
mijevanje mnogostruke i kontradiktorne rasistike ideologije je ono to
je bitno za feministiki pokret. (Ovaj most, str. 91)
138
Trinh T. Minh-ha, Ne (kao) ti: postkolonijalne ene i pitanja identiteta i razlike, u: Anzalda
(ur.), Oblikovanje izraza, str. 371, 317-5.
139
Michelle Cliff, Objekat u subjektu: neka razmiljanja o crnim umjetnicama, u: Anzalda (ur.),
Oblikovanje izraza, str. 271-90.
140
Anzalda, Svjesnost meleza: ka novoj svijesti, u: Anzalda (izdava), Oblikovanje izraza, str.
377-89.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 251
141
Jacqui Alexander, Chandra Mohanty (ur.), Feministika genealogija, kolonijalno nasljee,
demokratska budunost (New York, Routledge, 1997), str. xiv
252 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
142
Pat Parker, Revolucija... nije jednostavna, prijatna, brza, u: Anzalda, Moraga (ur.), Ovaj
most, str. 239-40.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 253
imperijalne britanske drave i njenih rasnih i nacionalnih diskursa; ali i kao kritika
ljeviarskih, antirasistikih i feministikih pokreta, i njihovih reakcija na dravu. Po-
red ropstva, crnci u Britaniji su nasljednici i kompleksne istorije evropskog koloni-
jalizma i kapitalistike rekolonizacije. Ova vieslojna istorija dovela je do fraze
crnobritanski to je generalno inkluzivan termin, i ukljuuje nekadanje subje-
kte imperije iz Afrike, sa Kariba, june Azije i drugih mjesta. Iako ponekad kritiko-
van za potencijal problematizovanja etnikih i religioznih razlika, crnobritanski
uglavnom podrazumijeva politiku kategoriju, tj. optu lokaciju koju dijele imigra-
nti, nasuprot kategoriji britanske drave; ukljuuje iskustva marginalizacije i pred-
stavlja politiku rasne solidarnosti.143 Kao to Hajdi Safija Mirza kae u antologiji
crnobritanskog feminizma: Biti crn/a i Britanac/Britanka znai biti bezimen/a u
zvaninom diskursu.144 ena/mukarac moe biti ili crn/a ili Britanac/Britanka
oboje nikako. Pitanje da li je termin crnobritanski strateko politika artikulaci-
ja, ili primjer politike homogenizovanja identiteta samo potvruje da je crno
samo po sebi sporna kategorija u Britaniji, bez obzira to djeluje politiki rezi-
stentno.
Crnobritanski feminizam postao je prepoznatljiv politiki pokret i kritiki
entitet krajem 70-ih godina, u periodu izrazito rasistike, konzervativne politike
Margaret Taer (britanske premijerke, 1979-1990). Crnkinje su se organizovale u
borbi protiv konstantnih rasistikih i faistikih napada od strane bijele policije,
konzervativnih politiara, ulinih bandi i krajnje agresivnog Nacionalnog fronta,
ultradesniarske organizacije koja daje prvenstvo bijeloj rasi. Antirasistika politika
i rad na osnivanju crno-bijelih alijansi u borbi protiv dravne, rasistike retorike i
prakse omoguili su artikulaciju programa crnobritanskog feminizma, koji je
iskustva crne rase u Britaniji pokuavao shvatiti putem polnih razlika, i koji se za-
lagao za polnu i rasnu pravdu.
Za ovakav jedan program veliki izazov predstavljao je momenat kada su
lokalne vlasti (gradska vijea i obrazovni autoriteti, na primjer) zauzeli stav koji je
djelovao kao multikulturalna radikalna politika, koja se suprotstavlja taerskom
nacionalizmu i ekonomskoj privatizaciji zasnovanoj na nacionalnim karakteristi-
kama ekonominosti, spekulacije i marljivosti. Dok je vlada otvoreno ispoljavala
ksenofobiju i rasizam, putem svoje imigrantske politike, tj. nepruanja pomoi imi-
grantima generalno sa druge strane, progresivni lokalni autoriteti u Londonu,
Manesteru, Birmingemu, na primjer, pokuavali su razmotriti pitanje institu-
cionalnog rasizma, i zalagali su se za multirasnu politiku. U gradovima poput ovih,
143
Pogledati: Beverley Bryan, Stella Dadzie, Suzanne Scafe (ur.), Srce rase - ivot crnkinja u Britaniji
(London: Virago, 1985).
144
Heidi Safia Mirza (ur.), Crnobritanski feminizam: prirunik (London, New York, Routledge,
1997), str. 3.
254 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
inae, vijee crnih laburista imalo je znaajnu poziciju. Retorika i praksa multi-
kulturalizma, tako se, dakle, paradoksalno izlegla iz logike slobodnog trita.
Kritiki multikulturalizam tragao je za analizama koje su bile vrijedne
reakcije. On je elio objasniti kako je rasa formirala cijelo britansko drutvo, a ne
fokusirati se samo na oigledne manifestacije rasizma. Ovakav pristup rasi pred-
stavljao je novi vid rasizma, budui da je usredsreenost takoe bila na rasnim i
kulturnim razlikama. Multikulturalizam je privilegovao ove razlike putem pitanja
ekonomske i socijalne pravde a polnu jednakost vidio je kao privatnu stvar, ko-
jom treba da se bavi (odreena) zajednica.
Samo neka od kljunih i meusobno povezanih polja, na kojima je crno-
britanski feminizam odigrao znaajnu transformativnu ulogu u ovom periodu, su
sljedea: dravna imigrantska politika, multikulturalizam kao politika ideologija,
pitanje rada i pravo na socijalnu pomo. Na ovom posljednjem polju (rada), crno-
britanski feminizam sukobio se sa socijalistima, koji su u okviru radnike klase, tj.
borbe za posao bijelog mukarca vidjeli kao arhetip. U okviru sindikalne politike,
klasne borbe takoe su tipino vodile rauna o kulturnom identitetu dok su
privatnici istovremeno, zloupotrijebljavali nedostatak legalnog statusa ili pak niski
drutveni poloaj imigrantskih radnika/radnica.145 Ova arena ne prestaje biti od
najvee vanosti za crni britanski feminizam. Globalni kapitalizam, koji je doveo do
otvaranja granica unutar Evropske unije, i Novi laburisti, koji su nastavili taersku
politiku privatizacije javnih sektora konstantno su pogoravali poloaj imigrant-
kinja, koje su bile sinonim za jeftinu radnu snagu. Nedavni priliv siromanih bijelki-
nja iz istone Evrope, njihova prostitucija i zauzimanje najbijednijih radnih mjesta
u okrilju ekonomski prosperitetne Britanije samo je posljednji izazov za femi-
nistike kritike studije rase, i njihovu analizu eksploatisanja enske radne snage i
rasne neravnopravnosti.
Istorijski, britanska imigrantska politika samo je u mukarcu vidjela radni-
ka, dok je ena trebalo da zavisi od mukarca. Za ene sa Kariba ova politika je
predstavljala naroit problem, jer su one uglavnom dolazile samostalno, i u jedna-
kom broju kao mukarci, jo od Drugog svjetskog rata, tj. nakon njega, kada su ko-
lonizovali vrbovani za niskoplatene poslove, a to je omoguilo bolje pozicije bi-
jeloj rasi.146 Tokom 60-ih i poetkom 70-ih godina desio se bitan preokret. Kako je
Britanija bila ekonomski nestabilna, uvedeni su restriktivni imigrantski zakoni, koji
su onemoguavali dolazak eks-kolonistima iz Azije, Afrike i sa Kariba. Konzervativni
politiari, poput Inok Pauela, pustili su ogroman talas kodljive rasistike retorike,
usred one generalne da bijelu Britaniju treba sauvati od rasne i kulturne konta-
145
Pogledati: Amrit Wilson, Pronalaenje glasa azijske ene u Britaniji (London: Virago, 1978).
146
Amina Mama, Crnkinje, ekonomska kriza i britanska drava, Feministiki asopis, posebno
izdanje, Mnogo glasova, jedna pjesma, 17, jul 1984, str. 22-34.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 255
147
Pogledati: Stuart Hall, Torpedo usmjeren na kotlarnicu konsenzusa, Novi dravnik, april 1998,
str. 14-19. Povodom rasistikog govora koji je Inok Pauel odrao u Birmingemu, u aprilu 1968,
Stjuart Hol dao je niz refleksija. U asopisu je takoe reprodukovan Pauelov govor.
148
Od septembra 2004. u Francuskoj je zabranjeno noenje bilo kakvih religioznih simbola u
kolama. Mada se ovo tehniki odnosi na sve religiozne simbole, kontroverza se naroito
fokusirala na muslimanke sa maramama. Pogledati: Norma Moruzzi, Problem s maramama:
savremene kompleksnosti politikog i socijalnog identiteta, Politika teorija 22:4 (novembar
1994), str. 653-72.
149
Gita Sahgal, Sekularni prostori: organizaciona iskustva azijskih feministkinja, u: Gita Sahgal,
Nira Yuval-Davis (ur.), Odbacivanje svetih redova: ene i fundamentalizam u Britaniji (London:
Virago, 1992), str. 163-97.
256 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
Graani imperije
150
Za elaboraciju ovog stava mnogo prije 11. septembra 2001, pogledati: Samuel Huntington,
Sukob civilizacija (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996).
Folia linguistica et litteraria 257
151
Feministkinje su sada skretale panju na ratne zloine protiv ena, u kampovima za silovanje u
Bosni i Bangladeu; na silovanja i sakaenje maloljetnih muslimanki u javnom pokolju u Gudaratu
(u Indiji, 2002); na genocidne ratove i izbjeglike kampove u Ruandi i Darfuru. Meutim, ciljevi
feministikih kritikih rasnih studija povodom savremenog trenutka, sasvim razumljivo nijesu
precizirani.
152
Pogledati: Catherine Lutz, Dom: militaristiki grad i ameriki 20. vijek (Boston: Beacon Press,
2001).
258 Journal of Language and Literary Studies
153
U obraanju (u radio program) 17. novembra 2007. godine, prva dama Laura Bu izjavila je:
,,Borba protiv terorizma je i broba za prava i dostojanstvo ena. Pogledati u The News and
Observer, 18. novembra 2001. godine, str. 16A.
154
Ovo pitanje bilo je u fokusu na forumu ,,ene u borbi protiv fundamentalizma poslije 11.
septembra, koji sam organizovala sa Mirijam Kuk, na Univerzitetima Sjeverna Karolina i Djuk, 1. i
2. novembra 2001. godine. Pozvale smo tri feministkinje iji je rad usko povezan sa pomenutom
temom: Gitu Sagal, iz Londona, Naval el-Sadavi iz Kaira i Mab Segrest iz Darama, Sjeverna Karolina.
Do mnogih zakljuaka dola sam zahvaljujui radu ovih hrabrih ena; zahvalna sam i Mirjan Kuk,
Ketrin Luc i Ranjana Kana; i drugim uesnicama koje su me inspirisale svojim diskusijama.
Folia linguistica et litteraria 259
Preporuena literatura:
UPUTSTVO AUTORIMA
Potovani autori,
Ureivaki odbor
Folia linguistica et litteraria 263
Dear authors,
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