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To cite this article: Jacqueline Specht, Donna McGhie-Richmond, Tim Loreman, Pat Mirenda,
Sheila Bennett, Tiffany Gallagher, Gabrielle Young, Jamie Metsala, Lynn Aylward, Jennifer Katz,
Wanda Lyons, Scott Thompson & Sarah Cloutier (2015): Teaching in inclusive classrooms: efficacy
and beliefs of Canadian preservice teachers, International Journal of Inclusive Education, DOI:
10.1080/13603116.2015.1059501
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This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
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a
Faculty of Education, Western University, London, Canada; bEducational Psychology and
Leadership Studies, University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada; cFaculty of Education,
Concordia University College of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; dFaculty of Education,
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada; eFaculty of Education, Brock
University, St. Catharines, Canada; fFaculty of Education, Memorial University of
Newfoundland, St. Johns, Canada; gFaculty of Education, Mount Saint Vincent University,
Halifax, Canada; hSchool of Education, Acadia University, Wolfville, Canada; iFaculty of
Education, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada; jFaculty of Education, Universityof
Regina, Regina, Canada
(Received 21 January 2015; accepted 1 June 2015)
This study provides a Canada-wide snapshot of the self-efficacy and beliefs of 1490
preservice teachers in relation to inclusive teaching using the Teacher Efficacy for
Inclusive Practice and the Beliefs about Learning and Teaching Questionnaire. At
the time of data collection, these preservice teachers were in the final stages of their
teacher education programmes. Based on the results of surveys in 11 Faculties of
Education, men have higher self-efficacy than women for managing behaviour in
the classroom, elementary preservice teachers have higher self-efficacy
in collaboration than those teaching in secondary schools, those enrolled in the
1-year post-degree programme show lower self-efficacy than those enrolled in
programmes of other durations, and those who have experience with people with
special education needs show higher self-efficacy than those who do not.
Differences illustrated that women were more inclusive than men, 1-year post-
degree preservice teachers were less inclusive than others, and those who have
experience with people with special education needs are more inclusive than
those who do not. Recommendations for teacher education and limitations
surrounding the practical significance of the findings are discussed.
Keywords: preservice teachers; inclusion; self-efficacy; beliefs about teaching and
learning
Corresponding author. Email: jspecht@uwo.ca
classroom and school communities (Specht and Young 2010). It further implies that all
students attend neighbourhood schools in age-appropriate, regular education class-
rooms where they are supported to participate, learn, and contribute to school life
(Inclusion BC 2015).
Estimates of the number of students identified with special education needs in
Canada range from 9% to 15% (Canadian Council on Learning 2009; Timmons
2006). Reviews of the literature indicate that inclusion is effective for the social and
academic outcomes of all students, not just those identified with special education
needs (Canadian Council on Learning 2009; Kalambouka et al. 2007; Timmons and
Wagner 2008). Settings that promote inclusion are more successful at promoting learn-
ing for all students the ultimate goal of education.
In spite of research attesting to the positive effects of inclusion, a large percentage of
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students with special education needs continue to be excluded from regular classrooms
(Canadian Council on Learning 2007). Despite differences in the definition of
inclusion, the education required to become a teacher, and many other contextual
factors, there is consensus that the perception of teachers is that they are not adequately
prepared to teach in inclusive classrooms (Gokdere 2012; MacBeath et al. 2006).
Teachers attitudes and beliefs about inclusion have been linked directly to the
implementation of inclusive classroom practices (Avramidis and Norwich 2002).
From the research, it is evident that in order for inclusive education to be effective, tea-
chers need to believe that all students belong in regular classrooms, feel confident in
teaching all students in those classrooms, and have the knowledge and skills to do
so (Florian and Black-Hawkins 2011; Jordan, Glenn, and McGhie-Richmond 2010).
Over 80% of students with special education needs in Canada spend at least 50% of
their day in regular classrooms. Preservice teacher education programmes have a
responsibility to graduate teachers who can teach in those classrooms. One way to
determine that this is occurring is to assess their feelings of self-efficacy with regard
to implementing inclusive practices. It is also paramount to determine whether or not
preservice teachers believe that all students belong in regular classrooms. It is possible
that they may feel well prepared to teach all students, but still hold beliefs that students
with special education needs should not be in regular classrooms (Silverman 2010).
Although there is research around the world investigating newly graduated teachers,
it is typically regional or has involved only a few institutions (e.g. Florian and Linklater
2010; Forlin et al. 2010; Killoran, Woronko, and Zaretsky 2014; Peebles and Menda-
glio 2014; Theoharis and Causton-Theoharis 2011). Few studies have focused on the
self-efficacy, and teaching beliefs of preservice teachers for inclusion (Peebles and
Mendaglio 2014) especially with a comprehensive look at the variables that contribute
to beliefs about teaching and learning, and self-efficacy within the same large
population.
Present study
This study adds to the existing body of knowledge and provides a clear picture of the
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Method
Participants
Participants consisted of 1490 students completing the in-faculty component of their
preservice programme in 11 Faculties of Education across Canada. The preservice pro-
grammes differed by length (i.e. consecutive 1- or 2-year post degree; 4- and 5-year
concurrent degree) and length of practicum experience.
The participants ranged in age from 20 to 56 years of age (M = 25.9 years; SD =
5.4). The sample consisted of 25.8% men and 74.2% women. The length of edu-
cation programme varied as follows: 40.7% were enrolled in a 1-year post-degree
programme; 30% enrolled in a 2-year post-degree programme; 11.1% were enrolled
4 J. Specht et al.
Measures
Along with gathering some demographic information on age, sex, educational back-
ground, length of programme, and experience with people with special education
needs, the measures included (a) The Teacher Efficacy for Inclusive Practice question-
naire (TEIP, see Sharma, Loreman, and Forlin 2011) and (b) The Beliefs about Learn-
ing and Teaching Questionnaire (BLTQ, see Jordan and Glenn 2008). The TEIP scale
was used to determine preservice teachers feelings of self-efficacy as they completed
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Procedures
Participants were surveyed during one of the last classes in their preservice teacher pro-
gramme. They were provided time in class to complete the surveys. The person admin-
istering the survey was either a different instructor or a graduate student. Information
about the research projects goals and procedures was read to the participants.
Printed copies of the survey package were distributed to the participants and they
were provided 30 minutes to complete the surveys. The regular instructor left the
room while participants completed the surveys. People who did not wish to participate,
returned blank surveys or left the room.
International Journal of Inclusive Education 5
Results
For each of the two questionnaires (BLTQ and TEIP) MANOVAs were performed for
each demographic variable. If significant, ANOVAs were then conducted, with follow-
up post hoc tests as required. This process protected against Type 1 error given the
number of possible comparisons. As there were many analyses, only statistically sig-
nificant differences are presented here. Degrees of freedom changed across analyses,
as some data were missing for certain questions and only cases for which all data
were present were entered into each analysis. With respect to the questionnaires,
means scores for each subscale are reported resulting in possible scores of 16
(higher scores are close to 6 for all subscales).
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Programme length
There was a statistically significant difference in subscales of the BLTQ based on the
length of participants preservice teacher education programme, Wilks L = .04,
partial h2 = .02, F (12,3651) = 6.88, p = .0004. Subsequent ANOVAs indicated sig-
nificant differences on the Teacher Controlled and Attaining Standards subscales
(see Table 1). Post hoc tests revealed that participants in 1-year post-degree pro-
grammes scored significantly higher than those in 2-year post-degree and both 4-
and 5-year first-degree programmes on both subscales. Conversely, those in 4-year
first-degree programmes scored significantly lower on both subscales, compared to
6 J. Specht et al.
(Continued)
International Journal of Inclusive Education 7
Table 1. (Continued).
Variable M SD df F h2 p
Entity-Increment 1,1310 8.48 .006 .004
Friends with special needs 1.89 .78
No friends with special needs 2.01 .86
Attaining Standards 1,1310 10.69 .008 .001
Friends with special needs 2.85 .82
No friends with special needs 3.0 .89
those in all of the other programme lengths. Overall, participants in 1-year post-
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degree programmes had students with less inclusive beliefs, although the effect
sizes were small.
Programme length
There was a statistically significant difference in subscales of the TEIP based on the
length of participants preservice teacher education programme, Wilks L = .95,
8 J. Specht et al.
(Continued)
International Journal of Inclusive Education 9
Table 2. (Continued).
Variable M SD df F h2 p
Work/volunteer experience with special needs
Managing Behaviour 1,1172 8.06 .007 .005
Work/volunteer experience 4.57 .61
No work/volunteer experience 4.42 .69
Collaboration 1,1172 8.68 .007 .003
Work/volunteer experience 4.75 .64
No work/volunteer experience 4.59 .66
Inclusive Instruction 1,1172 8.29 .007 .004
Work/volunteer experience 4.95 .53
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Sex differences
Women tended to report more inclusive beliefs while men reported higher self-efficacy
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on managing behaviour. This finding is one that has shown varied results in the litera-
ture (Ernst and Rogers 2009). It may be that depending on the types of questions asked
in the survey, different results emerge. From the present study, we suggest that Fac-
ulties of Education consider providing women with the skills necessary to manage dif-
ficult behaviour or at least help them to recognise the skills that they have. With respect
to beliefs, we may want to emphasise more student-centred approaches to men or have
them examine why they are less likely to espouse inclusive beliefs. Given that more
women tend to teach at the elementary system than men, it may also be that there is
an overlap with sex and grade taught. This distinction may be useful to tease out in
future research.
Grade taught
Elementary teachers indicate more inclusive beliefs and more efficacy in the area of col-
laboration. The beliefs of elementary teachers tend to be more inclusive (McGhie-Rich-
mond et al. 2013) so it is not too surprising that we see such a difference at the
preservice level. Teachers in elementary schools teach the same students all day and
are responsible for all aspects of their schooling. Secondary teachers share the
student with other teachers and do not have total responsibility for all curricular
areas and courses of study. These differences may lead to a sense that students are in
their classrooms to learn a certain subject and nothing more. Such feelings can foster
a belief that if the students cannot handle the curriculum as presented, they should
be elsewhere. It may be that preservice teachers in the elementary panel have had
more experience in collaborating with parents and other educators by the very nature
of the elementary system. Given that collaboration is a key to successful inclusion
and a topic in which most Faculties of Education do not provide instruction (Harvey
et al. 2010), it may be useful to address such issues, especially at the secondary level
where the teachers may feel more isolated. Such collaboration could also promote
greater collective responsibility for students within the secondary system.
Programme length
The results for this variable showed that preservice teachers in the 2-year post-degree
programme had higher self-efficacy in the areas of managing behaviour and collabor-
ation (although collaboration did not show to be practically significant). Those in the
1-year post-degree programme tended to show less inclusive beliefs. Given the
International Journal of Inclusive Education 11
Experience teaching
Although there were no differences in beliefs about learning and teaching, preservice
students who had been on a practicum placement for more than 30 days showed
higher self-efficacy for teaching in inclusive classrooms. Given that we know direct
experience teaching students with special education needs increase self-efficacy
especially in one-on-one instruction (Peebles and Mendaglio 2014), it may be that
the longer preservice teachers are in the classroom, the more likely they are to have
such experiences. Future research should investigate the types of positive and negative
experiences preservice teachers have in teaching students with special education needs
during their practicum. These experiences could be investigated to determine how they
influenced their beliefs about teaching and their self-efficacy. In addition, it is rec-
ommended that teachers be given the opportunity to volunteer in effective inclusive
classes in order to gain such experience.
Conclusion
The results of this study demonstrate that across Canada, Faculties of Education are pre-
paring teachers who express confidence in educating students with special education
12 J. Specht et al.
needs. Further, these teachers believe that students with special education needs have
the ability to learn and they, as teachers, have the skills and ability to teach within
the inclusive classroom. Even with the statistically and practically significant differ-
ences in the findings, the scores on these measures indicate that we are graduating tea-
chers who believe that all students belong in the regular education classroom.
Perhaps, this finding is not too surprising given the work of Boyle, Topping, and
Jindal-Snape (2013) and Gokdere (2012) who determined that new teachers seem to
be more positive about inclusion than those with years of experience. In a retrospective
study, in-service teachers suggest that their preservice teacher preparation did not equip
them with necessary skills and knowledge to meet the needs of diverse learning popu-
lations (DeSimone and Parmar 2006). Future research should examine the issue long-
itudinally to determine why the change occurs. Although the profession of teaching,
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like all other professions, is one that will benefit from experience on the job, it is
still the case that more could be done in the initial preparation to increase beginning
teachers understanding and skills in addressing the learning needs of diverse students,
which in turn would increase their opportunity for success in the inclusive classroom.
The need to tailor preservice teacher preparation to ensure an entry level to the pro-
fession is paramount and has been called for repeatedly in the literature (e.g. Booth
2011; Kozleski et al. 2013). It is necessary to ensure that our preservice teacher edu-
cation programmes have courses that provide the knowledge and skills that beginning
teachers will need in their diverse classrooms, that instructors adhere to providing these
knowledge and skills, and that preservice teachers are learning these knowledge and
skills. There are pockets of concerted effort around the globe, but more need to occur.
The research study reported here has significance for teacher education programmes
in universities across the country and internationally. Knowledge of the various demo-
graphic differences found in Canadian preservice teacher education can assist adminis-
trators in adjusting programmes to suit the demographic needs of their respective
students.
Funding
This research was supported in part by a grant from Western University Internal SSHRC com-
petition (2012 2013) and Western Faculty of Education Research Committee (2012 2103).
Notes on contributors
Jacqueline Specht is a Professor at Western University. She teaches in the area of educational
psychology and special education in both the pre-service and graduate programmes. Currently
she is the director of the Canadian Research Centre on Inclusive Education and teaches in both
the pre-service and graduate programs. Her research interests encompass pedagogical issues sur-
rounding the participation of children in the school system.
Donna McGhie-Richmond is an Associate Professor at the University of Victoria. Her research
focuses on the role of universal design for learning and instruction and assistive technologies in
enabling teaching and learning. She has established collaborative connections with school dis-
tricts in BC and ministry of education-supported services such as Provincial Integration Support
Program; and SET-BC.
Tim Loreman is a Professor at Concordia University College of Alberta. His research interests
are school inclusion, childhood and pedagogical issues along with pre-service teacher education.
He has partnered with provincial and regional agencies, such as Getting Ready for Inclusion
Today (GRIT) and Pembina Hills Regional School Division 7.
International Journal of Inclusive Education 13
Pat Mirenda is a Professor at the University of British Columbia. In 2009, she became Director
of The Centre for Interdisciplinary Research and Collaboration in Autism at UBC. Her primary
areas of interest are autism/developmental disabilities, augmentative and alternative communi-
cation, positive behavior support, inclusive education, and literacy development.
Sheila Bennett is a Professor at Brock University. She works in the area of policy and practical
issues in the field. Through her research work, publications, and speaking engagements, she has
collaborative relationships with universities, school boards, and community associations (e.g.,
Six Nations Aboriginal Community Consortium; Ontario Brain Injury Association) across
Canada.
Tiffany Gallagher is an Associate Professor at Brock University. She specializes in survey
design and case study methods. Within the past few years, she has worked closely with two
school boards in the Niagara region of Ontario as a consultant researcher for projects that
these school boards were implementing in the areas of professional development, and literacy
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