Journal of ELECTRONIC MATERIALS, Vol. 38, No.

7, 2009 Special Issue Paper

DOI: 10.1007/s11664-009-0709-3
2009 TMS

Micro- and Nano-Technology: A Critical Design Key

in Advanced Thermoelectric Cooling Systems

TERRY J. HENDRICKS1,3 and NAVEEN K. KARRI2

1.Hydrocarbon Process Group, Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest

National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, WA 99352, USA. 2.Engineering
Mechanics and Structural Materials, Radiological and Nuclear Science and Technology Directo-
rate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, WA 99352, USA.
3.e-mail: terry.hendricks@pnl.gov

Advanced thermoelectric (TE) cooling technologies are now receiving more

research attention, to provide cooling in advanced vehicles and residential
systems to assist in increasing overall system energy efficiency and reduce the
impact of greenhouse gases from leakage by current R-134a systems. This
work explores the systems-related impacts, barriers, and challenges of using
micro-technology solutions integrated with advances in nano-scale thermo-
electric materials in advanced TE cooling systems. Integrated system-level
analyses that simultaneously account for thermal energy transport into and
dissipation out of the TE device, environmental effects, temperature-
dependent TE and thermo-physical properties, thermal losses, and thermal
and electrical contact resistances are presented, to establish accurate opti-
mum system designs using both p-type nanocrystalline-powder-based (NPB)
BixSb2
xTe3/n-type Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3 TE systems and conventional p-type Bi2Te3-
Sb2Te3/n-type Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3 TE systems. This work established the design
trends and identified optimum design regimes and metrics for these types of
systems that will minimize system mass, volume, and cost to maximize their
commercialization potential in vehicular and residential applications. The
relationships between important design metrics, such as coefficient of per-
formance, specific cooling capacity, and cooling heat flux requirements, upper
limits, and critical differences in these metrics in p-type NPB BixSb2
xTe3/
n-type Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3 TE systems and p-type Bi2Te3-Sb2Te3/n-type Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3
TE systems, are explored and quantified. Finally, the work discusses the
critical role that micro-technologies and nano-technologies can play in
enabling miniature TE cooling systems in advanced vehicle and residential
applications and gives some key relevant examples.

Key words: Micro-technology, nano-technology, thermoelectric cooling,

design miniaturization, high heat flux, thermoelectric systems,
thermoelectric optimization

NOMENCLATURE Cp Specic heat of gas/liquid stream (J/kg K)

COP Coefcient of performance (=qc/P)
L TE element length (cm or m)
Variables
m_c Cold-side (ambient) mass ow rate (kg/s)
Ap p-type element area (m2) m_h Hot-side (exhaust) mass ow rate (kg/s)
An n-type element area (m2) N Number of thermoelectric couples
P Device power (W)
Pacific Northwest National Laboratoryoperated for the U.S. qh Hot-side thermal energy transfer (W)
Department of Energy by Battelle Memorial Institute under qc Cold-side thermal energy transfer (W)
contract DE-AC05-76RLO1830.
(Received July 30, 2008; accepted February 2, 2009; Rth,c Cold-side TE/HX interface thermal resis-
published online March 10, 2009) tance (K/W)

1257
1258
Rth,h Hot-side TE/HX interface thermal resistance
(K/W)
T Temperature (K)
Tamb Ambient temperature (K)
Tcabin Interior cooled cabin temperature (K)
Th TE hot-side temperature (K)
Tc TE cold-side temperature (K)
UA Effective heat exchanger conductance 9
area (W/K)
V Device voltage (V)
ZT TE material gure of merit 9 temperature
Greek
a Seebeck coefcient (V/K)
b Coefcient of performance
e Heat exchanger effectiveness
ec Cold-side heat exchanger effectiveness
eh Hot-side heat exchanger effectiveness
g Thermoelectric conversion efciency
kp p-type element aspect ratio L/Ap (m
1)
kn n-type element aspect ratio L/An (m
1)
j Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
q Electrical resistivity (Ohm m)
r Parasitic heat loss and gain fractions
Subscripts
c or cold Cold-side of TE device
ch Channel related
ex Associated with heat exchanger
gas Exhaust gas side
h or hot Hot-side of TE device
i n- or p-type element specication
n n-type TE material
p p-type TE material
TE Associated with TE device
* At optimum COP design conditions
INTRODUCTION
Research and engineering organizations are
focusing enormous resources and attention on
micro- and nano-technologies in a number of tech-
nical areas and applications, to create solutions in
advanced energy generation, energy storage, energy
distribution, and cooling systems. Advanced ther-
moelectric (TE) research is focusing efforts on nano-
scale materials, such as new, high-performance,
quantum well, nano-composite structures, or thin-
film superlattice thermoelectric materials,14 and
micro-scale systems, in promising energy recovery
and conversion technology57 to recover significant
fractions of waste thermal energy in vehicle and
industrial applications.
Hendricks and Karri
TE cooling technologies are now receiving more
research attention, to provide cooling in advanced
light- vehicles and in heavy-duty vehicles, to assist
in increasing overall system energy efficiency, and to
reduce the impact of greenhouse gases from leakage
by current R-134a systems. Current estimates indi-
cate that, nationwide, 710 billion gal of gasoline per
year can be attributed to automotive air condition-
ing,8,9 while typical vehicle air conditioners leak
approximately 50 g R-134a per year, and its global
warming potential is approximately 1300 times that
of CO2 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-134a, http://
www.mfe.govt.nz/issues/ozone/depleting-substances/
more-tech-info.html). As a result of early scoping
studies, the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of
Vehicle Technologies, has now initiated a program
for TE heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
(HVAC) systems to accelerate development and
deployment of emerging high-efficiency TE modules
for HVAC functions in advanced vehicles. The
objectives include the reduction of: petroleum con-
sumption, by increased overall system energy effi-
ciency, and toxic emissions, and greenhouse gases, in
automobiles, light trucks and heavy-duty trucks,
with a primary objective to develop vehicular TE
HVAC systems to augment or replace current air
conditioners that use compressed R-134a refrigerant
gas. Advanced TE cooling systems using new, low-
dimension, quantum well and nano-structured TE
materials (e.g., nano-structured composites, thin-
film superlattices) and micro-technology are two
promising technologies that could provide advanced
systems to satisfy requirements.
Research efforts are now exploring the systems-
related impacts, barriers, and challenges of using
micro-technology solutions integrated with
advances in nano-scale thermoelectric materials in
advanced TE cooling systems. These systems nec-
essarily require integrated system-level analyses
that simultaneously account for thermal energy
transport into and dissipation out of the TE device;
environmental effects; temperature-dependent TE
and thermo-physical properties and thermal losses;
thermal and electrical contact resistances, to
establish accurate optimum system designs. System
designs will necessarily have requirements to min-
imize system mass, volume, and cost, to maximize
their commercialization potential in vehicular and
residential applications. These goals can be greatly
facilitated through system-level analyses.
Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of the basic TE
cooling systems and thermal flows investigated, and
it depicts the integrated system-level analyses
required to establish accurate optimum system
designs. This paper discusses the impact of micro-
and nano-technology as a critical key to maximizing
critical design metrics, such as cooling flux, specific
power, and specific cooling capacity, in systems
using current and future advanced TE materials.
Examples of developed micro-technologies to achieve
postulated system-design goals and requirements are
Micro- and Nano-Technology: A Critical Design Key in Advanced Thermoelectric Cooling Systems 1259

Compartment qcin of temperature; therefore, functions f1f6 are ulti-

Cooling Flow Cold Side Heat mately only functions of the hot-side temperature,
Exchanger Th, and the cold-side temperature, Tc, on the TE
Tcabin , mc Tc device. The cold-side and hot-side heat exchanges in
Fig. 1 are simulated with the following equations,
where all the design variables are defined in the
nomenclature:
P N

1 rTE;c  Tcabin
Tc
qc 1
(7)
_ c Cp;c ec 1rex;c
m
Rth;c

Hot-Side T
col
Th
Rejection Flow Hot Side Heat
d
Exchanger Th
Tamb
Tamb , mh qhout
qh
 1
rex;h  (8)
Ambient I 1
rTE;h  m_ h Cp;h eh R th;h

which account for parasitic heat gains and losses

(rTE,c, rex,c, rTE,h, rex.h) at the appropriate interfaces
Power In and heat exchanger performance through heat
exchanger effectiveness, ec and eh.
Fig. 1. Advanced TE system schematic and thermal flows.
Examination of Eqs. 16 reveals that, given a
specific ambient temperature (Tamb) and cabin
temperature (Tcabin), this set of design parameter
equations is a function of Th and Tc only. Therefore,
presented and discussed. The research goal was to optimum parameter sets for TE system and heat
understand better the effects of micro-technologies on exchanger design can be uniquely defined for given
potential TE cooling design performance and to Th and Tc conditions. Optimum TE and corre-
determine optimum methods for leveraging micro- sponding heat exchanger design parameters were
technology and nano-technology solutions in creat- investigated here for a variety of Th and Tc condi-
ing robust, advanced, TE cooling systems. tions. This gave an integrated, comprehensive pic-
The cooling systems analysis was based on ther- ture of relationships and interdependencies
moelectric analyses maximizing the coefficient of between the optimum parameters for TE and heat
performance (COP), as presented in Angrist10 and exchanger design in optimized cooling designs. This
Rowe,11 and heat exchanger analyses presented in integrated systems approach allows one to evaluate
Kays and London12 and Hendricks.5,7 The thermo- simultaneously: (1) requirements for accurate heat
electric analysis is governed by Eqs. 16: exchanger design and performance, and (2) true
  optimum TE design requirements and cooling per-
V
f1 Th ; Tc (1) formance in any given application.
N
The TE system-level analysis approach used here
accounts for the heat exchanger performance, par-
I  ki f2 Th ; Tc (2) asitic heat gain and loss effects, and thermal inter-
face resistance effects simultaneously coupled with
  thermoelectric device performance, to analyze and
qh  k 
f3 Th ; Tc (3) quantify simultaneously the expected heat transfer
N i
requirements, cooling capacity available, specific
  cooling capacity, and specific power required for
qc  k  typical vehicle and residential application. The
f4 Th ; Tc (4) analysis defines optimum TE designs (number of
N i
couples and element areas) that maximize TE
  device COP, while simultaneously coupling TE
kp device performance to heat exchanger performance,
f5 Th ; Tc (5)
kn i for a variety of Th and Tc combinations and a given
Tamb and Tcabin. The Tamb and Tcabin used in this
b COP f6 Th ; Tc (6) analysis were 300 K and 293 K, respectively.
The TE cooling system design is necessarily
where functions f1f6 are functions of temperature influenced greatly by the performance of the cold-
on the TE cooling device and TE material properties side and hot-side heat exchangers shown in Fig. 1.
within the device. The design variables in Eqs. 16 The performance of the cold-side heat exchanger is
are defined in the nomenclature above. The TE generally characterized by its UAc (effective heat
material properties (a, j, q) are themselves functions exchanger conductance 9 area) value, while the
1260 Hendricks and Karri

hot-side heat exchanger is characterized by its UAh
(effective heat exchanger conductance 9 area)
value. This analysis focused on the effects of the
cold-side heat exchanger, while setting its UAc =
60 W/K. This UAc is fundamentally important,
because it governs the amount of cold-side heat
transfer (i.e., cooling capacity) that can occur in the
TE cooling system for given temperature differen-
tials. The hot-side heat exchanger was assumed to
be water cooled, so its UAh was assumed to be high
enough for the hot-side temperature differentials to
be small.
THERMOELECTRIC MATERIALS
Advanced, next-generation, TE materials devel-
oped in the past 5 years are providing enhanced
opportunities for TE cooling systems and the
promise of cost-effective cooling systems in
advanced vehicle and residential systems. This
work has investigated the system cooling benefits
and system thermal integration challenges in
designing advanced TE cooling systems with cur-
rent and advanced, next-generation, TE materials.
Optimum cooling design analyses were performed
for two TE material combinations:
1. Conventional p-type Bi2Te3-Sb2Te3/n-type
Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3 TE materials (hereafter referred
to as Bi2Te3-based alloys).
2. p-type nanocrystalline-powder-based (NPB)
BixSb2
xTe34/n-type Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3 TE materials.
Studies with other material combinations are
on-going, but this paper will focus on these two
material sets to demonstrate the TE cooling design
metrics, relationships, trends, and advanced cooling
concepts for advanced vehicle and residential
systems.
TE COOLING SYSTEM DESIGN METRICS
Conventional Bi2Te3-Based Alloy Systems
Single-stage TE cooling systems using conven-
tional Bi2Te3-based alloy TE materials were inves-
tigated first as a benchmark to study systematically
their COPs versus specific cooling capacity (i.e.,
cooling capacity per mass) behavior, COPs versus
cooling heat flux, and specific power characteristics.
The intent was to establish the design trends and
identify any optimum design regimes or metrics for
these types of systems. These analyses used a
UAc = 60 W/K, but the results, design trends, and
conclusions presented could easily be expanded to
higher UAc.
Figure 2 demonstrates the typical maximum
COP versus specific cooling capacity behavior from
this systematic study. This characteristic family of
design curves was created by our varying Th and
Tc over the ranges shown in Fig. 2. This charac-
teristic behavior results from the fundamental
interaction between the cold-side heat exchanger
performance and the TE cooling device. What is
quite interesting is that a peak in specific cooling
capacity occurs for a specific optimum COP, indi-

1.4
Tcold=280 (K)
Tcold=272 (K)
Tcold=262 (K)
1.2
K)

Constant Thot
(
04
=3
T
h

( K)
07

1
p-type Bi2Te Sb2Te3
=3
T
h

K)

n-type
n-type Bi
Bi22Te
(
10

Te33 Bi2Se3
=3
M axim um COP

T
h

K)

0.8
(

L = 0.25 cm
13
=3

K)
T
h

(
16

TE Device Mass Only

=3

)
(K
T
h

19
=3

0.6
31 3 2 3 25 2 (K

UAc = 60 W/K
T
h

) ) )
T T T h =3

( K 8 (K (K
T

Preferred TE
h = 3h = h =

0.4 Design Regime

0.2

Distributed Cooling Systems

0
100 150 200 250 300 350
Qc Per Mass[W/kg]
Fig. 2. Maximum COP versus specific cooling capacity in bismuth telluride-based systems.
Micro- and Nano-Technology: A Critical Design Key in Advanced Thermoelectric Cooling Systems 1261

1.4
Tcold=280 (K)
Tcold=272 (K)
Tcold=262 (K)
1.2

K)
Constant Thot

(
04
=3
T
h

K)
p-type Bi2Te3 Sb2Te3

(
07
1

=3
T
h
n-type Bi2Te3 Bi2Se3

K)
Preferred TE

(
10
=3
L = 0.25 cm Design Regime

T
h

K)
Maximum COP

0.8

(
13
=3
TE Device Mass Only

)
(K
T
h

16
=3

K)
UAc = 60 W/K

(
T
h

19
h =3

)
0.6

( K
22
T

) ) )
T T T h =3

(K 8 (K (K
31 2 25
T
h = 3h = h 3=
3
0.4

0.2

Distributed Cooling Systems

0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Qc Per Area [W /cm 2]

Fig. 3. Maximum COP versus cooling heat flux in bismuth telluride-based systems.

cating that there is an optimum use-of-materials
point, and therefore an optimum cost-effectiveness
point, in the overall design space. This analysis
shows that typical maximum specific cooling
capacities in Bi2Te3 TE cooling systems are on the
order of 250350 W/kg for cases where the TE
element length L = 0.25 cm and UAc = 60 W/K.
Various additional studies with higher UAc values
have shown that these maximum specific cooling
capacity points simply shift to higher specific
cooling capacity values, while the associated opti-
mum COP stays the same.
Figure 3 demonstrates a second important and
related design metric, the typical maximum COP
versus cooling heat flux from this systematic design
study. This characteristic family of design curves
was created in the same manner as in Fig. 2, and
this characteristic behavior results from the same
fundamental interaction between the cold-side heat
exchanger performance and the TE cooling device.
This analysis shows that typical maximum cooling
heat fluxes in Bi2Te3 TE cooling systems are on the
order of 0.60.8 W/cm2 for cases where L = 0.25 cm
and UAc = 60 W/K.
Figures 2 and 3 also show preferred TE design
regimes, where one would move off the peaks and
sacrifice specific cooling capacity (W/kg) and cooling
heat flux (W/cm2) to obtain higher COP designs. The
behavior and trends in this preferred TE design
regime are such that penalties in specific cooling
capacity and cooling heat flux are small for signifi-
cant increases in COP. This will be quite relevant in
energy-sensitive applications, such as advanced
vehicle cooling.
Figure 4 shows a third critical and related metric,
the maximum COP versus cooling capacity and
specific power, from this systematic study. This
characteristic family of design curves was created in
the same manner as in Figs. 2 and 3. The charac-
teristic behavior between maximum COP and cool-
ing capacity is as expected, given the interaction
between the cold-side heat exchange and the opti-
mum TE device design. However, the lines of
constant specific power superimposed on the char-
acteristic curves provide an additional element of
design information. Regions of higher COP gener-
ally correspond with lower specific power regions,
and these are clearly quantified in Fig. 4. Further-
more, the tradeoffs between maximum COP, specific
TE cooling capacity, and specific power are clear
when comparing Figs. 2 and 4 data. While efforts to
move into higher COP regions can produce lower
specific power designs, if they are done in the wrong
manner they also can sacrifice the specific cooling
capacity and cooling heat flux, resulting in larger
TE cooling designs than necessary in vehicle and
residential applications. It should be re-iterated
that the characteristic behaviors in Figs. 24
simultaneously include the effects of heat exchang-
ers, parasitic heat flows, and TE device design.
1262 Hendricks and Karri

1.4
Tcold=280 (K)
p-type Bi2Te3 Sb2Te3 Tcold=272 (K)
Tcold=262 (K)
1.2 n-type Bi2Te3 Bi2Se3 Constant Thot

L = 0.25 cm

T
TE Device Mass Only

=3
h
1

04
( K)
UAc = 60 W/K
T
=3
h
07
Maximum COP

( K)
0.8
T
=3
h
10
( K)
T
=3
h
13

0.6
(
T

K)
=3
h

Sp
16 3 19 3 22 3 25 3 28 3 31

ec
T h T h T h T hT h

( K ( K (K ( K ( K (K

ific
= = = = =

611(W/kg)
Po
we
)

0.4 701(W/kg)
r
) ) ) )

796(W/kg)
896(W/kg)
1002(W/kg)
0.2

0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Cooling Capacity [W ]
Fig. 4. Maximum COP versus cooling capacity and specific power in bismuth telluride systems.

Figure 4 also shows a critical concept in the use of p-Type NPB BixSb22xTe34/n-Type Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3
distributed TE cooling systems for applications such Systems
as advanced vehicle cabin cooling. Distributed
Recent research4 has identified a nanocomposite
miniaturized cooling systems generally lower the
TE material, p-type NPB BixSb2
xTe3, a TE mate-
amount of cooling required in each sub-system,
rial created from the hot-pressing of nanoparticles,
because each cooling sub-system addresses a smaller
that shows high ZT performance (ZT  1.4) at
area and volume and the cooling required is dis-
temperatures near 100C. This material is a prime
tributed among several units, rather than one main
example of nanotechnology at work in achieving
unit. This distributed cooling attribute allows the
higher TE material performance that ultimately
optimum TE device design to move up (and to the
leads to higher device performance. This work has
left) on the maximum COP versus cooling capacity
investigated TE cooling systems using this p-type
curve into regions of higher COP (and, of course,
NPB BixSb2
xTe3 TE material with n-type Bi2Te3-
lower specific power) and higher specific cooling
Bi2Se3 TE material for the same environment con-
capacity (see Fig. 2). These higher COP regions also
ditions (Tamb = 300 K, Tcabin = 293 K) and heat
have inherently higher specific cooling capacity,
exchanger performance (UAc = 60 W/K) discussed
seen in Fig. 2, and higher cooling heat flux
earlier. This gives one a comparison of TE systems
requirements, seen in Fig. 3. The COP increase
using the latest nanoscience-derived TE materials
can be dramatic; for example, Fig. 4 shows that
with conventional Bi2Te3-based alloy TE systems.
decreasing the cooling capacity from 800 W to
Figure 5 shows the maximum COP versus specific
400 W in each sub-system within a distributed
cooling capacity behavior from this systematic
system can increase COP by a factor of 3. However,
design study of the NPB BixSb2
xTe3/Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3
fully leveraging this critical attribute requires the
TE systems. The characteristic families of curves
implementation of miniaturized distributed sub-
exhibit similar behavior to those for conventional
systems, which are capable of providing higher
Bi2Te3-based alloy TE systems shown in Fig. 2, with
cooling heat fluxes and specific cooling capacity
clearly identified peaks in specific cooling capacity.
associated with the higher COP regions. In the
The same fundamental interaction between cold-
example above, the required cold-side cooling heat
side heat exchange performance and the TE cooling
flux associated with the higher COP simultaneously
device is at play here. This indicates, again, there is
increases by 33%. Micro-technologies and nano-
an optimum use-of-materials point and therefore
technologies are critical to achieving the higher
optimum cost-effectiveness point in the overall
performance potential and satisfying the require-
design space. This analysis shows that typical
ments of these miniaturized sub-systems.
Micro- and Nano-Technology: A Critical Design Key in Advanced Thermoelectric Cooling Systems 1263

1.4

K)
Tcold=280 (K)

(
04
=3
Tcold=270 (K)

T
h
Tcold=258 (K)
1.2 Constant Thot

(K)
07
=3
T
h

K)
p-type NPB BixSb2-xTe3

(
10
1

=3
T
h

K)
n-type Bi2Te3 Bi2Se3

(
13
=3

K)
T
h
Maxim um COP

(
L = 0.25 cm

16
0.8

=3

)
(K
T
h

19
h =3
TE Device Mass Only

K )
(
T

22
h =3

K )
(
0.6

5
UAc = 60 W/K

32

) ) )
K ) ( K (K K
T T T T Th =

(
7 ( 34 31 8
= 32
Preferred TE

h
h 3 3h =
3
Design Regime

h =3 =
0.4

0.2

Distributed Cooling Systems

0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Qc Per Mass[W/kg]
Fig. 5. Maximum COP versus specific cooling capacity in NPB bismuth-antimony-telluride systems.

maximum specific cooling capacities in NPB
BixSb2
xTe3/Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3 TE cooling systems are
on the order of 330440 W/kg for cases where
L = 0.25 cm and UAc = 60 W/K. This peak specific
cooling capacity in TE cooling systems using these
materials is approximately 27% higher than in
conventional Bi2Te3-based alloy TE systems under
similar temperature conditions. The reason for this
is twofold: (1) the fundamentally higher ZT of the
p-type nanocrystalline BixSb2
xTe3 TE material at
low temperatures and thus higher cooling perfor-
mance, and (2) its lower density. The benefit from
these nano-structured p-type nanocrystalline
BixSb2
xTe3 TE materials is, therefore, quite
apparent.
Figure 6 exhibits the second important and
related design metric, the typical maximum COP
versus cooling heat flux from this systematic design
study of these NPB BixSb2
xTe3/Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3 TE
systems. This characteristic family of design curves
was created in the same manner as in Fig. 5, with
the same fundamental interaction between cold-side
heat exchanger performance and the TE cooling
device, creating the indicated relationship between
maximum COP and cooling heat flux. This analysis
shows that typical maximum cooling heat fluxes in
BixSb2
xTe3/Bi2Te3 TE cooling systems are on the
order of 0.730.95 W/cm2 for cases where
L = 0.25 cm and UAc = 60 W/K. This is 1921%
higher than maximum cooling heat fluxes in Bi2Te3-
based alloy TE cooling systems for comparable
temperature conditions. These p-type NPB
BixSb2
xTe3 TE materials therefore create higher
cooling heat flux requirements, associated with its
fundamentally higher performance, in the TE
device design. This enhances the design require-
ments and challenges of the cold-side heat exchanger
design.
Figure 7 shows the maximum COP versus cooling
capacity and specific power relationships for the
NPB BixSb2
xTe3/Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3 TE systems. The
characteristic relationships are similar to those for
conventional Bi2Te3-based alloy TE systems, but the
maximum COP and cooling capacity are generally
higher for comparable temperature conditions, as
expected. A COP near 1 or higher is noted for some
temperature conditions. NPB BixSb2
xTe3/Bi2Te3-
Bi2Se3 TE systems can, of course, be used in
distributed TE cooling systems, and the same per-
formance enhancements apply (i.e., higher COP,
higher specific cooling capacity regions), resulting
from moving up the COP versus cooling capacity
curves, as in conventional Bi2Te3-based alloy TE
cooling systems. These higher COP regions also
have inherently higher specific cooling capacities,
from Fig. 5, and higher cooling heat flux require-
ments, from Fig. 6, which, as mentioned, are
enhanced relative to conventional Bi2Te3-based
alloy TE systems. Thus, the use of distributed
cooling systems and nanocomposite TE materials in
combination will create additional requirements to
implement miniaturized distributed sub-systems,
1264 Hendricks and Karri

1.4

K)
Tcold=280 (K)

(
04
=3
Tcold=270 (K)

T
h
Tcold=258 (K)
1.2 Constant Thot

(K)
07
=3
T
h

K)
(
p-type NPB BixSb2-xTe3

10
1

=3
T
h

K)
n-type Bi2Te3 Bi2Se3

(
13
=3

K)
T
h
Maximum COP

L = 0.25 cm

(
16
0.8

=3

)
(K
T
h
TE Device Mass Only

19
=3

K)
2(
T
h

T h =3 2
UAc = 60 W/K

)
(K
0.6

25
T

) K) K) )
T T T T h =3

(K 4 ( 1 ( (K
373 3 3 3 28
h = 3h = h = h = 3
Preferred TE
Design Regime
0.4

0.2

Distributed Cooling Systems

0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
2
Qc Per Area [W /cm ]
Fig. 6. Maximum COP versus cooling heat flux in NPB bismuthantimonytelluride systems.

which are capable of providing higher cooling heat
fluxes and specific cooling capacity associated with
the higher COP regions.
CRITICAL MICRO-TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS
The analyses in the previous section were per-
formed for TE element lengths, L = 0.25 cm
(0.098 in.). This is actually fairly large in TE cooling
applications, and further system-level benefits are
possible as L is decreased. Figure 8 demonstrates
the effect on maximum specific cooling capacity and
maximum cooling heat flux as the TE element
length, L, is decreased to 0.05 cm (500 lm,
0.0197 in.). Such TE element lengths would be quite
characteristic of miniaturized TE cooling systems
that could be used in distributed cooling systems.
Figure 8 shows that maximum specific cooling
capacity increases dramatically to 56 W/g; this
produces an equally astounding increase in maxi-
mum cooling heat flux required at the TE device
cold-side. In both conventional Bi2Te3-based alloy
TE systems and NPB BixSb2
xTe3/Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3 TE
cooling systems, this heat flux requirement is near
5 W/cm2. Most advanced vehicle and residential
cooling systems generally involve gas flow cooling of
interior cabins and personnel space. Conventional
gas flow heat exchange simply cannot provide better
than approximately 1 W/cm2 (associated with
L  0.21 cm in the TE device, from Fig. 8); there-
fore, they can accommodate only relatively large TE
devices. Other methods will be required to satisfy
the higher flux and specific cooling capacity
requirements and fully leverage miniature TE
cooling designs.
Various heat transfer micro-technologies have
shown high heat flux capability, and Fig. 8 indicates
the plausible heat flux regime with this technology.
The dotted line in Fig. 8 shows a typical minimum
heat flux level possible in micro-channel, gas-flow,
heat exchanger designs, and the shaded region
shows an achievable upper heat flux level possible
in micro-channel gas-flow designs. Micro-channel
heat transfer has a fundamentally higher perfor-
mance, because it is generally a laminar flow with
constant Nusselt numbers, it creates higher heat
transfer coefficients because of much smaller
hydraulic diameters and subsequently thinner
boundary layers, and the heat transfer becomes
decoupled from pressure drop losses and pumping
power. This required technology would enable
advanced TE cooling systems to be produced
with quite high specific cooling capacity, as much as
an order of magnitude higher than the conven-
tional Bi2Te3-based alloy TE systems and NPB
BixSb2
xTe3/Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3 TE cooling systems
investigated here. Figure 8 shows how the
achievement of these specific cooling capacities of
56 W/g requires, because of heat flux matching
requirements on the TE cold-side, that the optimum
TE cooling designs move into heat flux regimes
characteristic of micro-technology heat transfer.
This technology, therefore, is required to achieve
the goals and requirements to implement the
Micro- and Nano-Technology: A Critical Design Key in Advanced Thermoelectric Cooling Systems 1265

1.4
Tcold=280 (K)
p-type NPB BixSb2-xTe3 Tcold=270 (K)
Tcold=258 (K)
1.2

T
n-type Bi2Te3 Bi2Se3 Constant Thot

=3
h
04
( K)
L = 0.25 cm

T
1

=3
h
TE Device Mass Only

07
( K)
UAc = 60 W/K

T
=3
h
10
Maximum COP

(
0.8

K)
T
=3
h
13
( K)
T
=3
h
16 3 19 3 22 3 25 3 28 3 31 3 343 37
(K

0.6
T h T h T h T h T h T hT h

)
=

Sp
ec i
(K (K (K (K (K ( K (K

f ic
= = = = = =

743(W/kg)
)

Poo
844(W/kg) we
)

0.4 r
950(W/kg)
) ) ) ) )

1062(W/kg)
1179(W/kg)
1302(W/kg)
0.2

0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Cooling Capacity [W ]
Fig. 7. Maximum COP versus cooling capacity and specific power in NPB bismuth-antimony-telluride systems.

p- & n-type Bi 2Te3-Based Alloy Materials

12 p-type NPB Bi2Sb2-xTe3 & n-type Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3 Materials
Maximum Cooling Capacity Per Mass [W/gm]

7.5
p- & n-type Bi 2Te3-Based Alloy Materials
11 7.0
p-type NPB Bi2Sb2-xTe3 & n-type Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3 Materials
Maximum Cooling Heat Flux [W/cm2]

6.5
10
6.0
9 5.5
8 5.0
7 4.5
Micro-Technology Heat Transfer Capability 4.0
6
3.5
5
3.0
4 2.5
3 2.0
1.5
2
1.0
1 0.5
0 0.0
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
TE Element Length [cm]
Fig. 9. Micro-combustor/thermoelectric power system for miniature
Fig. 8. Maximum specific cooling capacity and maximum cooling
energy conversion.
heat flux in Bi2Te3-based alloy TE systems and NPB BixSb2
xTe3/
Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3Te systems.

directions required. Figure 9 is a miniature micro-

necessary miniaturized TE cooling systems in the combustor/TE power system developed and tested in
advanced distributed cooling concepts envisioned 2000 to demonstrate micro-channel/TE device inte-
for advanced vehicle and residential cooling. In gration. It was a Bi2Te3 thermoelectric cell devel-
addition to the need for micro-technology solutions oped for testing and evaluation purposes. It
for high-heat-flux cold-side heat transfer, it is also produced 17.7 We at 3.8% efficiency, with a hot-side
clear from standard TE cooling design knowledge temperature of 255C and a cold-side temperature of
that high-heat-flux micro-technology solutions for 60C. Heat recuperation was employed in the micro-
hot-side heat transfer also will be required in these combustor design to reduce waste heat by 50% and
miniaturized systems. to improve combustor fuel use efficiency. Figure 10
Figures 9 and 10 show two examples of the type shows a miniature steam reformer system that
of systems possible in this area and the future provides hydrogen for a miniature fuel cell system.
1266
Fig. 10. Micro-technology steam reformer for micro-fuel cell.
This prime example of micro-technology use in an
energy conversion system contains five different
chemical reaction and heat transfer functions in
that one device. That one device incorporates a
micro-technology-based combustor, two vaporizers,
a recuperator, and a steam reformer, within the
package size shown, each component design being
quite typical and exemplary of micro-technology
designs required in miniature TE cooling systems.
In addition, advanced cooling requires more
robust base heat exchanger materials, corrosion-
resistant nano-based coatings, and nano-based
thermal interface materials that have high thermal
conductivity, that can survive humid and corro-
sive environments, and that can satisfy reliabil-
ity, lifetime and cost requirements. This research
must occur in parallel with research for high-
performance, low-cost, highly-manufacturable, energy
conversion materials on-going at many organiza-
tions, and it is needed regardless of the cooling
technology employed. The performance of one
without the other will result in time-consuming
serial research and development that will ulti-
mately delay the commercialization of this impor-
tant technology.
CONCLUSIONS
Preliminary TE cooling design analyses were
performed to quantify critical design parameter
metrics and relationships that govern the design of
advanced miniaturized TE cooling systems. The TE
system-level analysis approach used accounted for
heat exchanger performance, parasitic heat gain
and loss effects, and thermal interface resistance
effects simultaneously coupled with thermoelectric
device performance to analyze simultaneously and
quantify the expected performance parameters in
typical vehicle and residential applications. These
analyses quantified maximum COP, specific cooling
capacity, and cooling heat flux relationships, upper
design parameter limits, and critical design
parameter differences, in NPB BixSb2
xTe3/Bi2Te3-
Bi2Se3 TE cooling systems and Bi2Te3-based alloy
Hendricks and Karri
TE cooling systems. This work established impor-
tant design trends and identified optimum design
regimes or metrics for these types of systems.
Optimum specific cooling capacities, optimum cool-
ing heat fluxes, and preferred TE design regimes
were identified that suggested the optimum use-
of-materials and cost-efficiency points in the cooling
design space, while increasing the COP. NPB-based
BixSb2
xTe3/Bi2Te3-Bi2Se3TE cooling systems were
found to have higher specific cooling capacities
(W/kg) and higher required cooling heat fluxes
(W/cm2) than do simpler Bi2Te3-based alloy TE
cooling systems.
The design parameter relationships showed how
distributed cooling systems envisioned for advanced
vehicle and residential systems would be highly
beneficial, because they would necessarily possess
higher COPs and higher specific cooling capacities.
However, to leverage fully these critical attributes
requires the implementation of miniaturized dis-
tributed sub-systems that are capable of providing
higher cooling heat fluxes associated with the
higher COP regions. This will require the exploita-
tion of the capabilities and benefits of micro-
technology heat transfer and nano-science-based TE
material advances to achieve the full potential of
these systems. In fact, nano-science-based TE
material enhancements, such as NPB-based
BixSb2
xTe3 materials, actually accentuate required
cooling heat flux requirements and further increase
the need for micro- and nano-technology heat
transfer solutions.
Future work will include the expansion of this
analysis approach and methodology into cascaded TE
cooling systems to explore further performance
enhancements in conjunction with micro-technologies
and nano-technologies in the advanced energy and
cooling system domains.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank John Fairbanks
at the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Vehicle
Technologies, Washington, D.C. for his support of
this work.
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