http://www.must.edu.

eg

College of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department
Desalination Engineering
Dr. Hassan K. Abdulrahim
Hassan K. Abdulrahim, PhD.
REVERSE OSMOSIS DESALINATION
SYSTEM
 Introduction
Reverse Osmosis (RO) process is the leading, most
energy efficient, and most used desalting method for
brackish water, seawater, and wastewater.
The RO (also known as hyper-filtration) is the finest
level of filtration available, after micro-, ultra-, and
nano-filtration.
The RO membrane acts as a barrier to all dissolved
salts and inorganic molecules, as well as organic
molecules with a molecular in the range of 100
 Introduction
Water molecules, on the other hand, pass freely
through the membrane creating a purified product
stream. Rejection of dissolved salts is typically 95%
up to 99.9%.
RO desalting method utilizes semi-permeable
membrane, separating salty water (solution) on one
side of the membrane from fresh (almost pure)
water on the other side.
Fresh water is permeated through the membrane
from the solution-side to the fresh water side by
applying high pressure on the solution-side.
Filtration Spectrum
 Chemical Potential
The chemical potential of the solvent (water)
molecules in the solution is the motive force for pure
water transfer (pass or permeate) through a semi-
permeable membrane, and it is expressed by:
w(P, T, xw) = ow(P, T) + R T ln(xw)
The chemical potential of the solvent in a solution may
be altered by changing the temperature and external
pressure applied to the solution and by changing the
mole fraction of the solvent in the solution, given by:
xw = nw /(nw + ns)
 Chemical Potential
Particles tends to
flow from a system
with a high value of
m to a system with a
low value of m. This
particle transfer
continues until m1 =
m2
Physical meaning of chemical potential is the tendency
of a system to give particles.
 Osmosis
When a semi-permeable
membrane separates pure
water from salty water
(solution) and both sides
are at the same P and T,
pure water permeates from
the pure water side to the
concentrate-side, and this
is known as osmosis flow.
 Reverse Osmosis
The chemical potential of
water in the solution is less
than that in the pure water
side, since xw< 1, and as a
result the term (RT ln xw) is
negative. The chemical
potential of water in the
solution w(P, T, xw) increases
by the increase of pressure
and/or temperature.
w(P, T, xw) = ow(P, T) + R T ln(xw)
 Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic pressure can be thought of as the pressure
that would be required to stop water from diffusing
through a barrier by osmosis.
Osmotic Pressure
 Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic pressure of saline water can be calculated
by measuring the molar concentrations of individual
dissolved salts in the solution by using eqn.
= R (T + 273) mi
is the osmotic P (in bars)
R is the the universal gas constant [0.0809
(Lbar)/(molK)]
T is the temperature in Celsius, and
mi is the sum of molar concentrations of all
constituents in the saline water.
Seawater Sample
 Osmotic Pressure
= 0.0809 (25+273) 1.1135 = 26.8 bar
The relative osmotic pressure per 1000 mg/L of TDS of
Pacific Ocean water is 26.8/(35,000/1000) = 0.77 bar/ppm
(bar) 0.77 TDS (g/l)
Rough estimation for
osmotic pressure , is
(11 psi) or (0.77 bar)
for each 1000 ppm of
Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS).
Filtration Process Flow Types
Dead-End Flow Cross-Flow
 Filtration Process Flow Types
Dead-End Flow Cross-Flow

Not feasible for RO/NF Required for RO/NF:

Sparingly soluble salts Sweeps away membrane foulants
precipitate and foul the Minimizes concentration
membrane. polarization
Filter cake build-up Generates a concentrate stream
and a permeate stream
Filtration Process Flow Types
 Reverse Osmosis
Membrane Structure
Structure of a typical RO
membrane:
1- semipermeable thin film (0.2
m), of aromatic polyamide (PA)
or cellulose acetate (CA),
2- supported layer of 0.025 to
0.050-mm microporous material
3- layer of reinforcing fabric.

The 0.2 m ultra-thin polymeric

film is what gives the RO
membrane its salt rejection
abilities and characteristics. Two
support layers reinforce the
membrane structure
Reverse Osmosis Membrane
Cross-section of thin film composite
membrane
Reverse Osmosis Membrane
 Cellulose Acetate (CA) and Polyamide
(PA) Membranes Materials
CA was developed in late 1950 in USA
CA and PA membranes have three-layer structure
Top two layers (ultrathin film and the micro-porous
polymeric support) are made of different forms of
the same CA polymer.
In PA these two layers are of completely different
polymersthe thin semipermeable film is made of
polyamide, while microporous support is made of
polysulfone
 Cellulose Acetate (CA) and Polyamide
(PA) Membranes Materials
CA membranes have a film layer, about 0.2 m thick;
but the thickness of the entire membrane (about 100
m) < PA membrane (about 160 m).
CA membranes surface is smoother, has very little
charge, considered practically uncharged, compared
to PA of negative charges and easily fouled.
CA perform within pH 4-6
Operating temperature should be T < 35C (95F),
above 40C, membrane compaction and failure.
 Cellulose Acetate (CA) and Polyamide
(PA) Membranes Materials
CA deteriorates fast by microorganisms producing
cellulose enzymes which deteriorates the membrane
material.
CA can tolerate exposure to free chlorine up to 1.0
mg/L, decrease membrane destruction by microbial
activity.
CA membranes have higher density than that of PA,
create higher head-loss when the water flows, and
operates at higher Pf, higher energy consumed
energy.
 Cellulose Acetate (CA) and Polyamide
(PA) Membranes Materials
CA membranes are used in municipal applications or
saline waters of high fouling potential and for
ultrapure water production in pharmaceutical and
semiconductor industries.
PA membrane most widely used RO type presently.
Thin polyamide film formed on microporous
polysulfone support layer surface by interfacial
polymerization of monomers containing polyamine
and immersed in solvent containing a reactant to form
a highly cross-linked thin film.
 Cellulose Acetate (CA) and Polyamide
(PA) Membranes Materials
PA operate at lower Pf, have higher productivity
(specific flux), lower salt passage than CA
membranes, main reasons for wider use.
PA have negatives charge if pH > 5, amplifies co-ion
repulsion and results in higher overall salt rejection.
When the pH < 4, PA charge changes to positive,
reduce salt rejection.
PA advantage: operate in wide range of pH (2-12),
easier maintenance and cleaning.
 Cellulose Acetate (CA) and Polyamide
(PA) Membranes Materials
PA membranes are highly susceptible to degradation
by oxidation of chlorine, exposure to chlorine longer
> 1000 mg/L-hour can cause permanent damage of
the thin-film structure.
PA membranes not biodegradable, have longer life,
5-7 years vs 3-5 years for CA.
PA used to produce membrane elements for BW and
SW Des, and NF.
Comparison of PA and CA Membranes
 RO Desalination Process
The idea of using RO membrane for desalting saline
water is to pressurize the feed water of salinity Xf
against a semi-permeable membrane.
Part of the feed permeates through the membrane
as product water (Pr) and the balance B = F Pr is
rejected as brine of high salinity Xb.
The amount Pr is controlled by a valve mounted at
the brine exit. So, the RO is a pressure-driven
diffusion-controlled membrane desalination process.
 RO Membrane Elements
There are three designs of the RO membrane
element
1. Spiral-Wound,
2. Hollow-Fiber,
3. Flat-Sheet
Spiral-Wound Element
Spiral-Wound Element
Spiral-wound module configuration.
Spiral-wound module
Spiral-wound module with perforated tubes
Flow patterns in spiral-would membrane element
Hollow-Fiber Element
Hollow fine fiber module and process

Structure of a fine hollow fiber membrane.

 Hollow fine fiber module configuration

Structure of a fine hollow fiber membrane.

Hollow fine fiber module and process
A hollow fiber module showing central distribution tube, fine
fiber tubes, and the feed flow in the module.
Flat-Sheet Membrane
Spiral-Wound Element
Spiral-Wound Membrane Element
Spiral-wound membrane elements exists in
different standard sizes, 2.5, 4, 8, and 16 inches.
The widely used size in most RO plants is the 8
inch diameter elements.
The standard length is 40 inches for RO plant.
Pressure Vessel
 RO System

The idea of using RO for desalting saline water is pressurizing the salty feed water
F of salinity Xf against a semi-permeable membrane. Part of F permeates through
the membrane as product water Pr and the balance B = F - Pr is rejected as
brine of high salinity Xb. The amount Pr is controlled by a valve mounted at the
brine exit. So, the RO is a pressure-driven diffusion-controlled membrane process.
The RO process showing the pretreatment of
FW before its arrival to the RO block.
RO System
Water Chemistry Related to
RO PROCESS
 Water Chemistry Related to RO
3.1 Solute Constituents in Water
3.2 Total Dissolved Solids
3.3 Milliequivalents Per Liter or Million (Epm)
3.4 The ppm CaCO3 Equivalents
3.5 Hardness and Alkalinity
Basic Equations of
RO PROCESS
 Basic Equations
Pr = ( P p) Kw S/d
Pr: permeate (product) flow rate
P: hydraulic pressure difference across the membrane
p: osmotic pressure difference across the membrane
Kw: water permeability coefficient of the membrane
S: membrane surface area
d: membrane thickness
 Product Flow
Pr = A (P p)
Pr = A (NDP)
NDP = (Pf Pfb/2 Pp) (fb p)
The driving pressure for the water to permeate through
the RO membrane is (P p), and this is called the net
driving pressure (NDP)
A: is a constant for each membrane material type. It is
not a simple constant, as it depends on the permeability,
surface area and thickness of the membrane.
 RO Membrane Unit
Feed, Permeate,
F = 100 m3/h Pr = 50 m3/hr
Xf = 20000 ppm Xp = 100 ppm
Concentrate,
B = 50 m3/hr
Xb = 39,900 ppm

Mass balance on a membrane module,

B = F Pr
Average brine flow is given by (F + B)/2
= F Pr/2
 Feed-Brine Side

Average pressure on the feed-brine side

Pfb = (Pf + Pb)/2
where
Pb = Pf Pfb
Pfb: pressure drop across feed-brine flow in module,
 Basic Equations
Average pressure across the feed-brine side is
Pfb = Pf Pfb/2
The recovery ratio RR is the ratio of the product water
to the feed water
RR = Pr/F
A salt balance gives
F Xf = B Xb + Pr Xp
Xf, Xb and Xp are feed, brine and product salt
concentrations respectively.
 Concentration Factor (CF)
The concentration factor, CF
CF = Xb/Xf = F/B
CF = F/(F Pr) = 1/(1 Pr/F)
CF = 1/(1 RR)
Brine salt concentration is given by
Xb = CF Xf = Xf / (1 RR)
The average feed salinity (average salinity of the feedbrine
side of the membrane), AFS or Xfb, is used in the calculation
of p across the membrane, where Xfb is taken as the
arithmetic average of Xf and Xb,
AFS = Xfb = (Xf + Xb)/2
 Salt Transport
Salt flow rate through membrane Qs is defined by:
Qs = X Ks S/d
Ks : salt permeability coefficient of the membrane,
X : concentration differential across the membrane,
S : membrane area,
d : membrane thickness.
 Salt Transport
This equation is often simplified to:
Qs = B (X)
Where
Qs: amount of salt transport across the membrane
B: represents a constant for each membrane type, it
depends on the salt permeability, area and thickness of
the membrane.
X: the salinity difference across the membrane, it is the
driving force for the mass transfer of salts.
 Salt Transport
Xp = Qs/Pr
Xp: is the product salinity
Salt passage:
SP = 100 (Xp/Xfb)
where
SP : is the percentage of salt passage through the membrane (%),
Xfb : is the average feed salinity (AFS), is the mean salt
concentration of the feed Xf and the brine Xb.
Xfb = (Xf + Xb)/2
Xfb = (Xf + Xf CF)/2
Xfb = Xf [1+1/(1 RR)]/2
 Average Permeate Flux (APF)
Average Permeate Flux (APF) is the permeate flow per
membrane surface area.
J (APF) = Pr/S (L/h)/m2, lmh
Specific Membrane Permeability (SMP)
SMP = (Pr/S)/NDP (L/h)/m2/bar
SMP is a design parameter, depends on the process
SW membranes average SMP 1 - 1.4 lmh/bar
BW membranes average SMP 4.9 - 8.3 lmh/bar
 Basic Equations
Equations show that for a given membrane:
a) Water flow rate through membrane is a function
of (NDP) across membrane.
b) Salt flow rate is a function of (X) across
membrane, and is independent of applied
pressure.
c) Product salinity Xp depends on relative flow rates
of water and salt through membrane
 Effect of feedwater pressure
on flux and salt rejection

Assuming temperature, recovery and feed concentration

are constant
If you double net
driving pressure
(NDP) to an RO
unit you will
double your
permeate flow.
 Temperature effect on Pr and Xp
Temperature correction factor (TCF) is expressed by

t : temperature in oC
C: constant, characteristic of membrane material.
For polyamide membranes, C values of 2500 3000 are
being used.

69
Feedwater temperature vs. flux and salt
rejection
 Temperature effect on Pr and Xp
Permeate flow
The higher the temperature the higher the permeate flow
Why? Lower viscosity makes it easier for the water to
permeate through the membrane barrier
RULE OF THUMB for every 1C the permeate flow will
increase ~ 3%
Salt passage
Rule of Thumb: salt passage increases 6% for 1C increase.
Increasing temperature increases salt passage more than
water passage.
Generally you will get better rejections at lower feed
temperatures.
 Salt concentration vs. flux and salt
rejection

Assuming temperature, feed pressure and recovery

are constant
 Salt Concentration Effects
Salt concentration affect on permeate flow
Higher salt concentration will decrease the permeate
flow, Why? Because higher osmotic pressure will
reduce the NDP.
Salt concentration affect on salt passage
Higher salt concentration will increase the salt
concentration gradient and increase the rate of salt
passage.
Salt concentration affect on permeate quality
Overall water quality is lower for two reasons, higher
rate of salt passage combined with less permeate
water.
Concentration Polarization
 Concentration Polarization
High at membrane surface
than in bulk feed
Reduced NDP (P ).
Reduced Pr
Increased (Qs).
Increased solubility of
sparingly soluble salts such
as CaCO3 and CaSO4 &
possibility of precipitation
 Concentration Polarization
Concentration polarization factor (CPF) is the ratio of
salinity at the membrane wall to the average salinity of
the feed-brine side
CPF = Xw/Xfb
 Concentration polarization values vs
element recovery

1.50
polarization factor
Concentration

1.40
1.30
1.20
1.10
1.00
0.90
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Recovery rate, %
Performance Parameters of NF, BWRO, and SWRO
membrane elements
 NF Spiral-Wound Polyamide
Membrane Elements
Used in NF treating very low salinities (typically TDS <
1000 mg/L) and mainly removes divalent ions causing
water hardness (i.e., Ca, and Mg), called softening
membranes.
NF membrane have higher permeability than BW and SW
elements and comparable rejection of bi-valent ions (i.e.,
Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, SO4).
NF membranes have low rejection of monovalent ions
e.g. Na, Cl, B.
NF have higher permeability, allowing NF elements to
operate at relatively higher specific flux and lower feed
pressure than BWRO and SWRO elements.
Brackish Water Desalination Elements
BWRO elements for saline water of
500 < TDS < 15,000 ppm
Optimal operation up to 10,000 ppm,
Beyond TDS 15,000 ppm considered as SWRO
membranes.
Testing: Standard 8-in (20-cm) D and 40-in (1.0-m)
long BWRO membranes tested at water salinity
between 500 and 1500 ppm, recovery rate of 15%;
flux rate between 43.5 and 51.4 lmh, and feed
pressure between 6.7 to 10.3 bars.
Brackish Water Desalination Elements
BWRO membranes are subdivided to
High-rejection membranes, 99.5-99.7%, with
higher operating pressure
Low-energy membranes, lower energy but lower
rejection
Low-fouling membranes, changes of membrane
surface chemistry (charge) or use of wider
feed/brine spacers (0.79 or 0.86 mm) versus
standard (0.71 mm)].
High-productivity membranes.
 Seawater Desalination Elements
SWRO membranes also classified to high-rejection,
low-energy, low-fouling, and high-productivity.
Standard-salt rejection up to 99.6%
 For a specific RO unit size, # of membrane elements
can be roughly estimated by considering the
published average flux reported in operating plants.
2024 lmh for nanofiltration,
2530 lmh for BWRO, and
1217 lmh for SWRO.