Some definition:

Qualitative analysis : the chemical analysis that detect the presence of substance in a sample

Quantitative analysis : is the chemical analysis that determines the concentration of a substance in a
sample

Volumetric analysis (titrimetric analysis) : is the quantitative chemical analysis carried out by
determining the volume of a solution of accurately known concentration which is required to react
quantitatively with a measured volume of a solution of the substance to be determined

Gravimetric Analysis is a quantitative analysis is based on the measurement of the weight of a substance
of precisely known composition that is chemically related to the analyte. Most often the unknown is
precipitated from solution by a reagent and, after separation and drying, is weighed

Instrumental analysis is a field of Analytical chemistry which investigates the analyte via devices or
machinery techniques. Like atomic absorption

Redox titration (Oxidation-Reduction titration) is a titration in which the reaction between the analyte
and titrant is an oxidation/reduction reaction

Redox reaction (oxidation-reduction reaction) is a reaction that involves transfer of electrons from one
substance to another

Complexometric titration is a titration in which the reaction between the analyte and titrant is a
complexation reaction

Precipitation titration is a titration in which the reaction between the analyte and titrant involves a
precipitation

Concentration is a general measurement unit stating the amount of solute present in a known amount
of solution

Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

Solute is a minor species in a solution

Solvent is the most abundant component in a solution

Standard solution is the solution of accurately known concentration

Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution

Normality (N) is the number of equivalents of solute per liter of solution

Molality (m) is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent

Strength of solution (S) is the number of grams of solute per one liter of solution
Weight percent (% w/w) is the number of grams of solute per 100 g of solution

Volume percent (% v/v) is the number of milliliters of solute per 100 ml of solution

Weight-to-volume percent (% w/v) is the number of grams of solute per 100 ml of solution

Part per million (ppm) is the number of micrograms of solute per gram of solution; for aqueous solutions
the units are often expressed as the number of milligrams of solute per liter of solution

Part per billion (ppb) is the number of nanograms of solute per gram of solution; for aqueous solutions
the units are often expressed as the number of micrograms of solute per liter of solution

Mole Is Avogadro's number of particles (atoms. molecules, ions, or anything else

Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of atoms in the molecular formula

Equivalent weight is the atomic weight of an element or radical divided by its valence; the molecular
weight of a compound divided by its combining power in a specific reaction

Gram-equivalent weight is the equivalent weight of an element or compound expressed in grams

Dilution the process of preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated solution

Molar solution is the solution that contains one mole of solute in each one liter of it

Normal solution is the solution that contains one gram equivalent of solute in each one liter of it

Molal solution is the solution that contains one mole of solute dissolved in each one kilogram of
solvent

Titration is a procedure in which a solution of accurately known concentration (titrant) is added

gradually added to another solution of unknown concentration (analyte) until the chemical reaction
between the two solutions is complete

Analyte is a constituent of the sample which is to be studied by quantitative measurements or identified

qualitatively

Titrant is the substance that quantitatively reacts with the analyte in a titration. The titrant is usually a
standard solution added carefully to the analyte until the reaction is complete. The amount of analyte is
calculated from the volume of titrant required for complete reaction

Back titration is a titration in which we add a known excess of one standard reagent to the analyte. Then
we titrate the excess reagent with a second standard reagent. A back titration is useful when its end
point is clearer than the end point of the direct titration or when an excess of the first reagent is
required for complete reaction with analyte
Blank titration is a titration in which we carry out the same procedure without analyte

End point is the point at which the indicator changes color. It is the experimental estimate of the
equivalence point in a titration

equivalence point: the moment at which; the Rx is completely and stoichiometric between indicator &
unknown

example: all moles HCl reacted with same moles of NaOH as Rx. ratio is 1:1

NaOH + HClNaCl+ H2O

Indicator is a colored compound whose change in color indicates the end point of a titration

Titration curve is a graph showing the progress of a titration as a function of the volume of titrant added

Neutralization Titrations (acidbase titration) A titration in which the reaction between the analyte and
titrant is an acidbase reaction

Acid

Arrhenius : a compound which releases hydrogen ions (H+) in solution

Bronsted-Lowry : a compound containing detachable hydrogen ions

Lewis : a compound that can accept a pair of electrons from a base

Base

.Arrhenius : a compound that produces hydroxide ions in aqueous solution

Bronsted-Lowry : a molecule or ion that captures hydrogen ions

Lewis : a molecule or ion that donates an electron pair to form a chemical bond

Strong acid is an acid that completely dissociates into hydrogen ions and anions in solution

Strong base is a base that completely dissociates into ions in solution

Acid-base indicator (Neutralization indicator) is a weak acid or a weak base. The undissociated form of
the indicator has a color different from the color of its ionized part. These substances change their color
according to variation of pH of medium

External indicator : it's detection of the end point outside conical flask

pH is the negative logarithm of the H+ concentration

Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion

Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion

Oxidizing agent is a substance which oxidize other substance and it self is reduced. - e.g. KMnO4,
K2Cr2O7 and I2

Reducing agent is a substance which reduce other substance and it self is oxidized. - e.g. C2O2H4, FeSO4
and Na2S2O3

Redox indicators are highly colored dyes that are weak reducing or oxidizing agents that can be
oxidized or reduced; the colors of the oxidized and reduced forms are different

Self indicator is the indicator in which the titrant or analyte itself act as indicator (i.e. change their color
at end point

Iodimetry direct titrations with I2

Iodometry titration of iodine produced from chemical reaction

Buffer solution : a solution which resistance change in pH

Solubility Product : it's the product of the ion concentration of a sparingly soluble electrolyte

Post Precipitation : secondary precipitation of a foreign substance on the particles of the primary
precipitation

Co-Precipitation : Contamination of the precipitate with substance which are normally soluble under the
precipitation condition , due to adsorption or occlusion

Masking Process : masking agent is reagent that protect some components

Adsorption : a phenomena which forms when a gas or vapor is brought in contact with an evacuated
solid

Double Salt : two simple salt have a properties in aquas state and have another properties in solid state

Formula weight : No. of atoms which exist in the compound

Molecular Weight : it's sum of all atomic weights of atoms of compound

Hydrolysis : reaction of substance with water or it's ions

Mole fraction : the number of moles of a component of a mixture divided by the total number of moles
in mixture

Co-ordination bond : transfer of lone pair of electrons from non metal atom ( ligand ) to metal atom

Co-ordination number : the number of Co-ordination bond around the central metal in Co-ordination
sphere

Ligand : anion or natural molecule which contain unpaired electrons

Order of reaction : it's sum of all power of the conc. of the reactant

rate of reaction : decrease of concentration per unit time of one of the reactant

Kc : an equilibrium const. in terms of molar concentration

Kp : an equilibrium const. in terms of partial pressure

Ka( acid ionization const. ) : is equilibrium const. of chemical reaction involving weak acid in aqueous
solution

Ksp( solubility product const. ) : is the equilibrium const. for a solid substance dissolving in aqueous
solution

viscosity : resistance of flow of liquid due to power between the layer of liquid

Titration& Types of Titration

Titration is a procedure in which a solution of accurately known concentration (titrant) is added

gradually added to another solution of unknown concentration (analyte) until the chemical
reaction between the two solutions is complete

Analyte is a constituent of the sample which is to be studied by quantitative measurements or

identified qualitatively

Titrant is the substance that quantitatively reacts with the analyte in a titration. The titrant is
usually a standard solution added carefully to the analyte until the reaction is complete. The
amount of analyte is calculated from the volume of titrant required for complete reaction

Types of titration

1. Acid base titration :

2. Oxidation reduction(Redox) titration :

3. Precipition titration :

4. Complexometrictitration :.

1. Acid base titration :

Acid-base indicator (Neutralization indicator) is a weak acid or a weak base. The undissociated
form of the indicator has a color different from the color of its ionized part. These substances
change their color according to variation of pH of medium

Neutralization Titrations (acidbase titration) A titration in which the reaction between the
analyte and titrant is an acidbase reaction

When we titrate the sample by standard soln. of base in burrete is called (acidity test )

When we titrate the sample by standard soln. of acid in burrete is called (alkalinity test )

End point is the point at which the indicator changes color. It is the experimental estimate of the
equivalence point in a titration

Indicator is a colored compound whose change in color indicates the end point of a titration

ph.ph. is indicator in titration of strong alkalies against strong or weak acids

Methyleorange . is indicator in titration of strong acids against strong or weak alkalies

No indicator gives correct result in the titration of weak acids against weak acids against bases

Strong acid is an acid that completely dissociates into hydrogen ions and anions in solution

Strong base is a base that completely dissociates into ions in solution

1. . Oxidation reduction(Redox) titration :

Based on oxidation reduction reaction

The chemical Rx,in which occur transfer of electron(loss or gain of electrons)among the reacting
ions in aqeous soln.

Some these titrations are named after the reagent used as (permanganate KMnO4,dichromate
K2Cr2O7,iodimetric by I2 ,iodometric by Na2S2O3)

Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion
 Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion

Oxidizing agent is a substance which oxidize other substance and it self is reduced. - e.g. KMnO4,
K2Cr2O7 and I2

Reducing agent is a substance which reduce other substance and it self is oxidized. - e.g.
C2O2H4, FeSO4 and(sodium thiosulphate ) Na2S2O3

Redox indicators are highly colored dyes that are weak reducing or oxidizing agents that can be
oxidized or reduced; the colors of the oxidized and reduced forms are different

Q:What the difference between iodimetric&iodometric?????

Iodimetry direct titrations with I2

Iodometry titration of iodine produced from chemical reaction

1. Precipition titration :

Based on formation of insoluble ppt,when soln. of 2 reacting substances are contact with each
other .

AgNo3+NaCl =AgCl+NaNo3

When AgNo3 is reacted with NaCl; thus White ppt. of AgCl is formed

Such titrations involves AgNo3 are called (Argentometric)

1. Complexometric titration

Undissociated complex is formed at the equivalence point

These titrations are superior to precipitation titrations as there is No error due to co-
precipitations (Co-Precipitation : Contamination of the precipitate with substance which are
normally soluble under the precipitation condition , due to adsorption or occlusion)

EDTA(ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid ) is useful reagent that forms complexes with metals

In the form of disodium salt; its used to estimate Ca ions& Mg ions in presence of (Eriochrome
black-T)(EBT)indicator.

EDTA is considered as a Ligand : anion or natural molecule which contain unpaired electrons

Co-ordination bond : transfer of lone pair of electrons from non metal atom ( ligand ) to metal
atom
 Co-ordination number : the number of Co-ordination bond around the central metal in Co-
ordination sphere

NOTES:

Q: WHAT the difference between end point & equivalence point ??

End point is the point at which the indicator changes color. It is the experimental estimate of the
equivalence point in a titration

equivalence point: the moment at which; the Rx is completely and

stoichiometric between indicator & unknown

example: all moles HCl reacted with same moles of NaOH as Rx. ratio is 1:1

NaOH + HCl = NaCl+ H2O

Back titration is a titration in which we add a known excess of one standard reagent to the
analyte. Then we titrate the excess reagent with a second standard reagent. A back titration is
useful when its end point is clearer than the end point of the direct titration or when an excess
of the first reagent is required for complete reaction with analyte

Blank titration is a titration in which we carry out the same procedure without analyte

Titration curve is a graph showing the progress of a titration as a function of the volume of
titrant added

Indicator is a colored compound whose change in color indicates the end point of a titration

Disadvantages of indicators :

1-visual error

2-each indicator has specific PH range

3-in turbid soln.&colouredsoln.;the change in colour in colour isnt obvious.

*Acid

Arrhenius : a compound which releases hydrogen ions (H+) in solution

Bronsted-Lowry : a compound containing detachable hydrogen ions

Lewis : a compound that can accept a pair of electrons from a base

*Base

Arrhenius : a compound that produces hydroxide ions in aqueous solution

Bronsted-Lowry : a molecule or ion that captures hydrogen ions

Lewis : a molecule or ion that donates an electron pair to form a chemical bond

The electric cell :

In presence of resistance wire ; electron pass from cathode to anode & electric current from
anode to cathode .
In absence of resistance wire ; we replace it by liquid soln. that is called electrolyte that have 2
types :
Strong electrolyte: the soln. have completely ionized .e.g: HCL that dissociated into H+& CL-
ions
Weak electrolyte: the soln. have partially ionized . e.g: NH4OH that dissociated into NH4+&
OH- ions
The resistance in resisrance wire depend on length & area surface.
The resistance in electrolyte soln. depend on ions movement that opposite to each other as +ve
ions go to ve electrode and the ve ions go to +ve electrode .thus +ve ions will face ve ions
thus occur resistance to each other .
In presence of electrolyte; ions carry electrons from +ve electrode to ve electrode ;
Firstly,CL-ions around +ve electrode (Anode)to give electrons into this electrode by(Redox)to go
to the cathode electrode and CL- ions turns into CL- ions turns into CL2 gas in the soln. by loss of
electrons that is carried on ions , then H+ ions around the ve electrode cathode to gain
electrons from the cathode by redox and turn into H2 gas

PHmeter:

Use for measuring the PH that is either the conc. or activity of H+ ions in aqueous soln.
PH indicate if the soln. is acidic or basic ; but isnt a measure of acidity or alkalinity.
PH meter consists of glass electrode connected to electronic meter that measure the PH
reading.
 NOTE:
Glass electrode: is electrode contain reference electrode &working electrode in the
same set.
PH of water is (5-7) at 250C
PH=-log{H+}

Q: Why water is acidic ??

Because water have Ca+2,Mg+2 ions that make water hardness ; where the Ca+2 ions attract the Oxygen
from H2 to make strong &nearthus occur small bond between (Ca&O)but make the bond of O with each
H atom is long &weak , thus each H ions will be free in the medium thus the water become acidic .

Conductivitymeter:

To determine conc. of substance by measuring its conductance.

R=(P*L)/A its unit is (Ohm) ; P=specific resistance(resistance of 1 cm3 of electrolyte ); L=length
of wire ; A= area surface ; R=resistance
G=1/R its unit is (Semens)or(S)or (Ohm-1) ; G = conductivity (its ability of electrolyte to
conduct electric current)
Conductivity of water at 250C is 1.3
Factors on conducitivity:
1) Number of ions.
2) Mobility of ions.
Types of conductivity :
a) Specific conductivity: conductance of 1 cm3 of soln.
b) Molar conductivity: conductance of 1 mole of soln.
c) Equivalent conductivity:conductance of 1 gm equivalent of soln.

Potentiometer:

To determine conc. of substance by measuring electrode potential of soln. in condition (No

current flow)
End point is reached when suddenly change in potential of working electrode.
Combined electrode : e.g: glass electrode. is electrode contain reference electrode &working
electrode in the same set.
Reference electrode ; has const. potential or zero ; dont depend on conc. of analyte. Like SHE,
Calomic electrode , Ag/AgCL
Working electrode : its potential depend on conc. of analyte or metal ion.
Ecell=Eworking-Ereference
Nernest equation : Ecell= E0+((R*T)/(n*F))*ln a
E0= standard electrode potential ; n=number of electrons; R=gas const.,T= temp., F=Faraday
const.,a=activity(a=conc.*activity coefficient)
Gravimetric analysis
Its quantitive technique involves the conversion of element to be determined from soluble form
to insoluble form and isolated it by filteration ,then weighting it .

1. Precipitation
2. Digestion
3. Filteration&washing
4. Drying,ignition&weighting
5. Calculation

1-precipition:

Properties of good precipitate

1. Have good physical form

2. Have definite chemical composition
3. Must be pure or extrapure

Contamination of precipitation

a) Co-precipition:its contamination of ppt by another element present in the mother liquid

b) Past-precipition:its contamination involves precipition of second ppt. on surface of first p

Q:How reduce contamination?

1) Recrystallization(smal crystals converts to large crystals)

2) Removal of interfering ions
3) Fast isolation or filteration for the formed ppt.

2-Digestion:leaving the ppt in contact with the mother soln. of period of time

3-Filteration:isolation of ppt from the mother soln. by (ashless filter paper Buchner system )

4-Washing:process aims to removal of surface adsorbed ions

5-Drying:occur at low temp. Iginition:occur at high temp.

Drying&Iginition are used to determine the analyte

Note:

Dessicator(dry box)

-dessicator is covered glass container for storage of objects in dry atmosphere

-it is charger with drying agent as silica gel or anhydrous Caso4&anhydrous CaCL2

LOSS ON Dyring test:

a) Weigt the dryied empty petridish(tare wt)w1

b) Then put (1gm)of sample on thisthe dryied empty petridish(w2=1gm)
c) Then put this petridish onto oven at 105c
d) Out the petridish to cool at the dessicator
e) Weight this petridish (w3)then calculate by (w4=w3-w1)

W3=weight of drying sample..W(H2O)=W4-W2

LOSS ON Drying=( W(H2O)/W2)*100

Sulphated Ash test :

a) Weight the dryied empty crucible (tare wt)(Ec)

b) Then put (1gm)of sample on empty crucible (Sw)
c) Then add 1ml H2SO4 Conc.
d) Put this crucible at flame to heat till No longer white fumes
e) Then put this crucible onto the muffle at 850C for certain period time(acc.
to pharmaceopia)
f) Out the crucible to cool at the dessicator
g) Weight the crucible (Ac);then calculate: Aw=Ac-Ec
h) Repeat this test 3 times then take average
Aw:ashwt from(Aw=Ac-Ec),Ac:(ash+crucible)wt.Ec:empty
crucible wtSw:sample weight as (1gm)

%Ash=(Aw/Sw)*100

Question:What is the difference between Sulfated ash & Residue on

iginition ?

H2SO4 conc. is used in Sulfated ash test ;H2SO4conc.is not used inResidue
on iginition
Chromatography theory: solutes to be separated depend on distribution between 2 phases
(mobile phase &stationary phase)

For Example in HPLC; sample is complex mix. Of organic compound that is dissolved in organic solvent by
HPLC that make separation & determination of this mix. quantitative or qualitatitve

Chromatogram: its a graphical representation (plot) of chromatographic separation process in

which the conc. is plotted against the time
Injection point: point at chromatogram that indicate that the sample injected in column
Retention time:

-time elapsed between injection point &maximium peak of the solute

- is the time that each component takes to come off the column

- can be used to help identify components

Types of resolution:
1. Base line resolution: occur complete separation (each component have a peak refers to
indicate it )
2. Partial resolution:(each peak of each component is very nearly to each other )
3. Zero resolution:(each peak of each component is found in one peak in the chromatogram)
Column of st.phase have large number of separate layers that called theoretical plates(when
no. of the theoretical plates increase; there occur perfect efficiency of chromatography )
The Theoretical plates (N):
1. To measure column efficiency
2. To measure of peak sharpness which is important for detection of trace component
peak sharpness is preferred than peak broadening due to occur overlapping of peak broadening
thus peak sharpness is apprear fast
types of liquid chromatography: (NPLC,RPLC)
1. NPLC: Normal Phase Liquid Chromatography (polar st. phase as silica particles &non
polar m.phase as hexane)
 2. RPLC: Reversed Phase Liquid Chromatography(polar m. phase as silica particles &non
polar st.phase as hexane)
Displacementer:
The substance that found in m.phase ;and have the ability to react with st. phase than
all types of solutes
It replace the solute that found in column; whereas one component which has weaker
interaction with column and strong interaction with m. phase while elute firstly,while
one component which has strong interaction with column and weak interaction with
m.phase will be eluted later
Disadvantage of displacementer ; there is problem in analytical scale ; because No
complete elution of each component of mix (presence of mixed zones ) that called Tail
region{its conc. contain mix of 2 adjacent solutes components}
Tail region: (if there is peak A & peak B , the peak A may be mixed with peak B;
because there are remain amount of peak A But B>A )
Frontal analysis: in which; dilute soln. of mix.(m.phase) is continuously added on one
column;solutes get out from that have st. phase based on interaction between solutes
&st.phase
Elution types
a) Isocreaticeution.(composition of m.phase doesnt change during one separation
process)
i. Stepwise m.phase(in which; different m.phase are used at different times)
ii. Only one m.phase(used,not changed in composition during process)
b) Gradient elution (composition of m.phase change during one separation process, can
changing from polar to non polar or opposite is right )
Shapes of st.phase:
A. Column- chromatography (st.phase is inside a tube;andm.phase moves through the
column by influence of gravity or pressure )
i. Packed column (st.phase is solid; it completely packed in column and m.phase is
as inert matter)
ii. Open tubular column (st.phase coats inside the wall in the tube leaving empty
path for m.phase)
B. Planar- chromatography (st.phase is inside a plat TLC or paper;andm.phase moves
through the plate or paper by influence of capillary action through the plate or paper
by influence of capillary action; Examples: paper chromatography ;TLC thin layer
chromatography plate )
Separation mechanism types:
1. Affinity chromatography
Separation depend on interaction between solute &st.phase
2. Ion-exchange chromatography
Separation depend on difference in the charge of solute
St.phase is resigns or polymer with acid or basic group
3. Chiral chromatography
Is used for separation of chiral compounds
If solutes&st.phaseare chiral compounds and m.phaseisnt chiral compound
If solutes&st.phasearent chiral compounds and m.phaseis chiral compound
St.phase is cellulose ,amaylase derivatives, protiens , peptids , cyclodextrin
4. Size exclusion chromatography:Ex: (LSC)Liquid Solid Chromatography
Separation depends on difference in size of the solute(small size get out down;but large
size remains)
Examples;(gel filteration):aqueous liquid m.phase -gel permation):organic liquid
m.phase
St.phase is polymer or porous silica
5. Adsorption chromatography:Ex: (LSC)Liquid Solid Chromatography
Separation depends on difference in adsorption affinities of mix. components to
st.phase
St.phase is silica
6. Partition chromatography:Ex: (LLC)Liquid Liquid Chromatography
Separation depends on difference in distribution of mix. components between 2 liquid
phases (liquid m.phase&liquid st. phase )

Paper chromatography ;TLC thin layer chromatography plate

Paper chromatography: is technique of separation &identification of compounds by
moving solvent(on sheets or strips of filter paper)
TLC thin layer chromatography plate: is technique of separation &identification of
compounds by moving solvent(on thin layer plate as silica gel coated on plastic plate)
Advantages of TLC over Paper chromatography; TLC is better than paper in resolution
(as give sharpest peak than in paper)in quantification &in TLC use corrosive agent
Types of paperchromatography:
i. Ascending chromatography:(in which,solvent travels from down to up through
filter paper or TLC by capillary action )
ii. Descending chromatography:(in which,solvent travels from up to down
through filter paper or TLC by capillary action ; tere are volatile substances,to
overcome it by gravity; Descending is fast than Ascending)
iii. One dimension chromatography: (only one solvent is applied)
iv. Two dimension chromatography: (in which 2 solvents at right angle are
applied;we make right angle to avoid overlapping)
TLC Method:
You put alittle spot of standard &test soln. by micropipette on TLC plate;you
put TLC plate into the TLC jar that have m.phase;wait a little bit for m.phase to
travel upwards;pull it out of the chamber; then using detection soln. that was
prepared and put it on the plate then either (use uv-lamp to see what spots are
 there)or (use the oven at 105 C at certain period of time to see what spots are
there)and then try to compare than 2spots in terms of polarity and calculate
(RF) value
Mechanism of TLC =Paper chromatography:
Is result of 2 forces
1) Propelling force: that depend on solvent flow, solubilitywhen RF
value increase
2) Retarding force : that depend on partition, adsorption.when RF
value decrease
RF(Retention Factor)
o RF=propelling force +retarding force
o RF is quantitative indication of how far a particular compound travels in
particular solvent
o RF value is good indicator of unknown compounds &known compound
o When 2 compounds are likely similar or identical; the RF value for
unknown compound is closed or same to known compound
o RF =D1/D2 where ;
D1= distance that color traveled,measuredfrom center of the band of
color to another center of the end point
D2=total distance that solvent traveled
o If RF=1; indicate polarity solvent(propelling force >retarding force)thus
solute is less resistance to move
o If RF=zero; indicate No polar solvent(propelling force <retarding force)
thus solute is more resistance to move
o If RF=0.3or 0.7 or any number between (zero to one ) may be also
soluble

HPLC(High Pressure Liquid Chromatography)

It is used for
1) For separating mixtures either to analyze the mix. or to separate a required
product from others in a reaction mixture
2) To find the relative amounts of different components in a mixture.
In which; how fast each one moves depends on its relative affinity for the m.phase in
the st.phase ;or example , if m.phase is more polar than st.phase ;the more polar
components of mix. will tend to move more quickely than the less polar ones
Components of HPLC :(mobile phase,pump. Injection port or autosampler,column,
detector,display,waste bottles)
There are pumps; they produce a pressure 150 times that of the atmosphere ,hence the
name high pressure liquid chromatography
 If single sample is to be run, it is injected into the solvent stream, here in the injection
port via a hypodermic syringe
If several samples can be run by loading them into autosamplers that will run them in
order without any human intervention.
The pumps force the mixed solvents through the column. The solvent emerging from
the column & carrying the separated components of the mix. passes into the detector .
By the detector; electromagnetic reaction between st.phase& solutes by moving
m.phase acc. to polarity
Parameter for HPLC : temp.,pressure,wave length, flow rate (ml. per min. )
Types of column :
1) Length 150 mm ,diameter 4.6 mm , pore size 5 micro meter
2) Length 250 mm ,diameter 4.6 mm , pore size 5 micro meter
3) Length 300 mm ,diameter 4.6 mm , pore size 5 micro meter
Types of st.phase in the column
1) L1: C18
2) L7:C8
3) L10:CN
Factors on retention time :
1) Length of column :( when length of column increase; the retention time
increase )
2) Flow rate: (when flow rate increase ; the retention time decrease )
NOTE: buffer soln. are used to prevent crystllisation of salts

Some troubleshooting are : temp.,flow rate, PH, degassing m.phase, mixing m.phase ,
column fouling ,sample injection overloading acc. to number of volume
factors of choice for separation &quantitation by column chromatography :
1. stationary phase
a. cross section shape &size
b. length
c. morphology of stationary phase
d. material composition
2. mobile phase
a. composition
b. flow rate
3. temp.
4. detector
5. sample size(volume,concentration)
 General Factors Increasing Resolution
Increase column length
Decrease column diameter
Decrease flow-rate
Pack column uniformly
Use uniform stationary phase (packing material)
Decrease sample size
Select proper stationary phase
Select proper mobile phase
Use proper pressure
Use gradient elution

Solubility:
1gm in 1ml=very soluble
1gm in 10ml=free soluble
1gm in 30ml= soluble
1gm in 100ml=slightly soluble
1gm in 300ml=spraingly soluble
1gm in 10,000ml=very slightly soluble
1gm in 100,000ml=practically insoluble

Polarimeter:

Principle of polarimeter:
It measure the optical rotation angle of polarized light as it passes through an optically
active fluid.
The measured rotation can be used to calculated the value of soln. conc.
Light is in all direction & introduce into the polarizer (filter-like) that polarize the light group in
one direction only . so give us plane polarized light enter the sample tube show us if the
molecule has stereochemistry involved or not :
 Once the light come through the sample tube in the organic compounds that was up , down
in & basically still up ,down in the end.(so No rotation of light , molecule dont have Dextro or
Levo; these molecules are achiral )
Once the light come through the sample tube in the organic compounds that was up ,down in
but changing as rotates ;it will be such as like right hand rotated;(molecules do rotation of
light , molecules have Dextro,Levo; these molecules are chiral compound as rotated left hand or
right hand rotated )
Polarimeter advantages:
It is used for analysis of optically , active fluids like sugars, lactic acid , tartaric.
This method gives information on chemical structure , chirality, and conc. of sample by
measuring the analyte through a ray of ploarised light
Application of polarimeter:
Sugar industry
Food ,drink &agriculture
Pharmaceutical industry
Chemical industry
Optical rotation=angle rotation /length of sample tube
Specific Optical rotation=angle rotation /(length of sample tube*conc.)
Where :conc.=Wt(gm)/(Vml)

UV

Ultraviolet-visible spectrometry tell us about electronic transition in atoms & molecules

Compounds that absorb in the visible region (400-800 nm) such as some transition metal compounds and
organic dyes are coloured but others that absorb only in the UV-region (200-400 nm) are colourless.
Inside UV-Visible spectrometer;
1) There are 2 light sources , (tungsten lamp) like a car head lamp bulb for giving out visible light &
(Deuterium lamp) gives out UV-light .
 2) The source produces white light that include all wave lengths, all colours; then light go to (wave length
selector)that contains diffraction grating that splits the light into its constituent wave lengths.
3) The single wave length pass to (half silvered mirror synchronized)whereas it cuts the light into 2 beams;
one beam pass through the sample cell While other pass through the reference cell ;
Q: compare between double beam & single beam ??
-double beam : measure blank & test in one time
-single beam : measure blank & test separately
4) Both sample & reference beam are directed to another half silvered mirror synchronized then to
photomultiplier (that convert light photon into light current )
5) From photomultipler to detector that compares their intensities and sed single proportional to the ratio
of their intensities to the computer that controls the instrument. The logarithum of this ratio gives
quantity called (absorbance)(that is measure how much light is being absorbed by the sample that
particular wavelength )

NOTES:

UV-Visible are run on solution, light doesnt normally pass through solid samples
To run the spectrum we place some of the solvent in a sample cuvette to act as a blank , a reference
.(there are 2 cuvettes type )
-glass or plastic cuvettes is required for work in the visible region of the spectrum.
-Quartz cuvettes are needed for work in the UV-range region.

Strong peak(fundamental stranger peak):

The electrons transfer from r0of ground state to r0 of excited state ....(A)
Weak peak (overtone peak):
The electrons transfer from r0 of ground state to r1 of excited state....(B)
 Sharp peak: electron transfer from r3 ground state to r3 excited state but when it back occur at
one step.
Broad peak: electron transfer from r3 ground state to r3 excited state but when it back occur at
more step.
Karl-Fischer

To determine trace amounts of water in sample.

Technique based on a reagent that react with the water in a sample & converts the water into non-conductive
chemical.
Reagent is composed of (CO2+Pyridine+Iodine)

Water tests:

1. Appearance:
Clear,colourless liquid by visually
2. Conductivity:
Result:1.3 S at 250C
3. PH:
Result:(5-7) at 250C
4. Total organic carbon:
Result:less or equal 0.5 mg/ml
5. Acidity/alkalinity:
Method: 10 ml boiled then cooled then 0.05 ml of methyl red soln.
Result: soln. is not red color
Method: 10 ml boiled then cooled then 0.1 ml of bromothymol blue soln.
Result: soln. is not blue colour
6. Oxidizable test:
Method: 100ml of sample then add 10 ml H2SO4(1M) then add 0.1ml of (0.02M) KMnO4 then
boil for 5min.
Result: the soln. remaining faintly pink .
7. Nitrate test:
Method:
I. Prepare 2 tubes (test tube & STD tube )
II. Add 4.5 ml purified water STD in the STD tube
III. Add 5 ml of sample in the test tube
IV. Add 0.4 ml KCL 10% at each tube
V. Add 0.5 ml Nitrate STD 2ppm at STD tube
VI. Add 5 ml of H2SO4 conc. At each tube
VII. Add 0.1 ml diphenylamine at each tube
Result: blue colour at STD tube &colourless at test tube .
8. Ammonium test:
Method:
I. Prepare 20 ml of sample then add 1ml of potassium tetraiodomercurate in tube (A)
II. Prepare 4ml of NH4 (1ppm STD)+16ml of ammonium -free water+1ml of potassium
tetraiodomercurate in tube (B)
Result: (A) tube is not more intensely coloured than tube (B)
9. Heavy metal:
Method:
I. Heat 20ml to evaourate till volume reach to 20 ml
II. Prepare 4 tubes (test tube,STD tube, blank tube,another tube)respectively.
III. Put 12ml of test soln. in the test tube.
IV. Put 2ml of test soln. in the test tube + 10ml of standard lead (10ppm) in STD tube
V. Put 2ml of test soln. in the test tube+ 10 ml of H2O in blank tube
VI. Put 5ml of (heavy metal mix. Reagent)that is to Add 1 mL of a mixture of 15 mL of 1M
sodium hydroxide, 5 mL of water and 20 mL of glycerol (85%) , heat in a water bath for
20 seconds, cool and use immediately.+1ml of thioacetamide reagent in the another
tube.
VII. Then add 2 ml of (buffer PH3.5) in the first 3tubes
VIII. Add 1ml from tube 4 in each first 3 tubes
Result:the STD tube is more than test tube in brown colour.
10. Calcium & magnesium:
Method: 10ml sample then add 2ml ammonium chloride buffer soln.(PH10)then add 50mg of
EBT indicator then add0.5ml of( 0.01M) EDTA
Result: pure blue colour
11. Residue on evapouration:
Method:
i. Evapourate 100ml on water bath and dry
ii. Bring a beaker and wt it empty dreied,then put 100 ml of sample an evapourate thus wt
this same beaker after cooled in the dessicator.
iii. Residue water soluble = Gross wt - Tare wt
iv. Tare wt=wt of empty dried beaker
v. Gross wt = wt of this beaker after evapouration of its sample.
 Result: Maximum 0.001%
12. Chloride:
Method: 10ml of sample then add 1ml (2N) HNO3 then 0.2 ml AgNO3 in test tube
Result: No change at 15min
13. Sulphate:
Method: 10ml of sample then add 0.1ml HCL(1N) then add 0.1ml (BaCL2)
Result: No change at least 1hour
14. Iron test:
Method:
i. Prepare 2 Nessler tubes (test tube ,STD tube)
ii. Prepare citric soln.(5gm citric acid in 25 ml of H2O)
iii. Add 10 test soln. in the test tube then add 2ml citric soln.
iv. Add 10 standard iron reagent (10ppm) in the test tube then add 2ml citric soln.
v. Then add 0.1 ml thioglycolic acid
vi. Then add 5ml NH3 conc.
vii. Result: (the STD is more than test in pink colour)

Heavy Metals:

Definition:

In general, metallic type of impurities are detected by standard procedure of inorganic qualitative
analysis which involve colour and precipitation reaction.

It detects elements with insoluble sulfides [lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), bismuth (Bi), arsenic (As), antimony
(Sb), tin (Sn), cadmium (Cd), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo)], it does not identify which is
element is present.

This test is based on principle that traces of lead salts if present are converted to lead sulphide by the
addition of Na2S to a slightly alkaline solution buffered by a high concentration of ammonium acetate.
The brown colour obtained due to the presence of colloidal PbS in the sample solution is compared with
that obtained from a known amount of lead.

Pb2+ + H2S PbS + 2H+

Method:

i. Prepare 4 tubes (test tube,STD tube, blank tube,another tube)respectively.

ii. Put 12ml of test soln. in the test tube.
iii. Put 2ml of test soln. in the test tube + 10ml of standard lead (10ppm) in STD tube
iv. Put 2ml of test soln. in the test tube+ 10 ml of H2O in blank tube
 v. Put 5ml of (heavy metal mix. Reagent)that is to Add 1 mL of a mixture of 15 mL of 1M sodium
hydroxide, 5 mL of water and 20 mL of glycerol (85%) , heat in a water bath for 20 seconds, cool
and use immediately.+1ml of thioacetamide reagent in the another tube.
vi. Then add 2 ml of (buffer PH3.5) in the first 3tubes
vii. Add 1ml from tube 4 in each first 3 tubes

Result : the STD tube is more than test tube in brown colour.

Chloride limit test :

i. Prepare 2 tubes (test tube ,STD tube)

ii. Put 5 ml of test soln. in the test tube
iii. Put 5 ml of chloride standard reagent (10ppm) in STD tube
iv. Put 1ml of AgNO3 in each tube
v. Put 1 ml of HNO3in each tube

Result : the STD tube is more than test tube in white ppt .

Sulphate limit test :

i. Prepare 2 tubes (test tube ,STD tube)

ii. Put 5 ml of test soln. in the test tube
iii. Put 5 ml of Sulphate standard reagent (10ppm) in STD tube
iv. Add 1ml of HCL(1N) in each tube
v. Add 1ml of BaCL2 in each tube.

Result : the STD is more than test

Iron test:

viii. Prepare 2 Nessler tubes (test tube ,STD tube)

ix. Prepare citric soln.(5gm citric acid in 25 ml of H2O)
x. Add 10 test soln. in the test tube then add 2ml citric soln.
xi. Add 10 standard iron reagent (10ppm) in the test tube then add 2ml citric soln.
xii. Then add 0.1 ml thioglycolic acid
xiii. Then add 5ml NH3 conc.
Result: (the STD is more than test in pink colour)

Residue water soluble :

 (Sample+impurities) then add water then make filteration thus(sample)and
(water+impurities)that occur evapouration .
Residue water soluble = Gross wt - Tare wt
Tare wt=wt of empty dried beaker
Gross wt = wt of this beaker after evapouration of its sample.

TOC (Total Organic Carbon)

It mean if there are ions in the water sample or not.

Mechanism:
i. Washing step:
UV &H3PO4&Sodium persulphate convert the carbon into CO2&H2CO3 where H2CO3 to be
H+,CO2- ions to increase conductivity & the curve indicate that the rate of conductivity is
high or low.
ii. Sparging step:
Remove inorganic carbon portion firstly ; then mean the organic carbon , this method is
called (sparging) that occur purging the sample by Nitrogen gas .

Flame photometer:

Is a device used in inorganic chemical analysis to determine the conc. Of certain metal ions,
among them sodium,potassium,calcium,Group 1&Group2 metals are quite sensitive to flame
photometry due to their low excitation energies.


Solutions preparation

Solution

A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more

substances. In such a mixture, a solute is dissolved in another substance,
known as a solvent.

Solute

The substance which dissolves in a solution

Solvent

The substance which dissolves another to form a solution

Saturation

Saturation is the point at which a solution of a substance can dissolve no

more of that substance and additional amounts of it will appear as a
precipitate.

Supersaturation
It refers to a solution that contains more of the dissolved material than
could be dissolved by the solvent under normal circumstances.

Types of solutions

Percentage solution
Molar solution
Normal solution

Percentage solution

Weight/ Weight solution % (w/w)

This type of solution is rarely if ever prepared in the laboratory since it is

easier to measure volumes of liquids rather than weigh the liquid on an
analytical balance.

This type of percent solution is usually expressed as (w/w), where "w"

denotes weight (usually grams) in both cases.

Example:
An example of a correct designation for this type of solution is as follows:
10 g/100 g (w/w), which indicates that there are 10 grams of solute for
every 100 grams total
 Weight/volume solution % (w/v)

Weight-volume percentage, (sometimes referred to as mass-volume

percentage and often abbreviated as % m/v or % w/v) describes the mass
of the solute in g per 100 ml of the resulting solution.

Example:
Preparation of 10% (W/V) NaCl solution

C
Caallccuullaattiioonnss:

C (required Conc.) X V of solvent (ml)

Wt of solute (g) =
100

so10% (W/V) NaCl solution has 10 grams of sodium chloride dissolved in

100 ml of solution.

P
Prroocceedduurree::

Weigh 10g of sodium chloride.

Pour it into a graduated cylinder containing about 80ml of water.
Once the sodium chloride has dissolved completely add water to bring
the volume up to the final 100 ml.
Note:
Do not simply measure 100ml of water and add 10g of sodium chloride.
This will introduce error because adding the solid will change the final
volume of the solution and throw off the final percentage.

g/L unite

A gram per liter (g/L) is a unit of measurement of

concentration which shows how many grams of a
certain substance are present in one litre of liquid.

1 g/L = 1000 mg/L = 100 mg/dl = 1000000 g/L =

0.1% (w/v) solution

ppm unite

ppm or part per million is a unit of concentration

often used and denotes one part per 1,000,000 parts,
one part in 106, and a value of 1 106.

1 mg/L = 1 ppm = g/ml

 Volume /volume solution % (v/v)

Volume-volume percentage (abbreviated as % v/v) describes the volume of

the solute in ml per 100 ml of the resulting solution.

Example:
Preparation of 30% (V/V) sulfuric acid
C
Caallccuullaattiioonnss::

C2 (required Conc.) X V2 of solvent (ml)

V1 of solute (ml) =
C1 (original solute Conc.)

So 30% (V/V) sulfuric acid has 30 ml of sulfuric acid dissolved in 70 ml of

water.

P
Prroocceedduurree::

Calculate the required volume of solute

Subtract the volume of solute from the total solution volume
Dissolve 30 ml sulfuric acid in a 70 ml of water to bring final volume of
solution up to 100ml.
 Note:
When you mix concentrated
sulfuric acid and water, you must
add acid (AA) to water in ice
bath.

Why?

Sulfuric acid reacts very

vigorously with water, in a highly
exothermic reaction. Water is
less dense than sulfuric acid, so
if you pour water on the acid, the
reaction occurs on top of the
liquid. If you add the acid to the water, it sinks and any wild reactions
have to get through the water.

Molar solution
Molecular weight

It is the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule. Also
called formula weight

Mo l e
A mole is also called gram-molecular weight and defined as number of
particles whose total mass in grams was numerically equivalent to the
molecular weight or it is the amount of substance containing the Avogadro
number (6.022 1023)

Molarity

Molarity or molar concentration denotes the number of moles of a given

substance per liter of solution.

Molar solution

It is a solution that contains 1 mole of solute in each liter of solution.

Units of molarity

The units for molar concentration are mol/L. These units are often denoted
by a capital letter M (pronounced "molar").

1 mol/l = 1000 mmol/l = 1000000 mol/l = 1000000000 nmol/l

1 mmol/ml = 1 mol/l

1 mol/ml = 1 mmol/l
 Name Abbreviation Concentration

Millimolar mM 10-3 molar

Micromolar M 10-6 molar

Nanomolar nM 10-9 molar

Picomolar pM 10-12 molar

Femtomolar fM 10-15 molar

Molarity of solid solute

Example:
Preparation of 1M NaCl solution in 1000 ml

C
Caallccuullaattiioonnss::

Wt of solute (g) = M (mole/l) X M.wt (g/mole) X V (L)

M: the required molarity

M.wt: molecular weight of the solute
V: total volume in liters
P
Prroocceedduurree::

Dissolve 58.5 g of NaCl in a 1000 ml (1 liter) of water to prepare 1M NaCl

solution.
 Molarity of liquid solute
To prepare 1M solutions make the following steps:

Calculate the molecular weight of the solute

Calculate the molarity of the solute using the following formula:

% X density X 10
Molarity (M) =
M.wt

Calculate the volume of the solute needed to prepare 1M solution using

the following formula:

M2 (required molarity) X V2 (required volume) (ml)

V1 of solute(ml) =
M1 (original molarity)

Subtract the volume of solute from the total solution volume

Mix both volumes of solute and solvent to reach the total required
volume
Example1:

Preparation of 1M HCL solution in 1000 ml

% percent Density M.wt

32 1.18 36.5

HCL molarity = 10.345

Volume required from HCL = 96.66 ml

Complete to 1 liter with 903.33 ml distilled water

Example2:

Preparation of 1M H2SO4 solution in 1000 ml

% percent Density M.wt

98 1.83 98

H2SO4 molarity = 18.3

Volume required from H2SO4 = 54.64 ml

Complete to 1 liter with 945.36 ml distilled water

Example3:

Preparation of 1M H2O2 solution in 1000 ml

% percent Density M.wt

30 1.44 34.01

H2O2 molarity = 12.70

Volume required from H2O2 = 78.74 ml

Complete to 1 liter with 921.25 ml distilled water

Normal solution
Equivalent weight
An equivalent weight is equal to the molecular weight divided by the
valence (replaceable H ions).

Normal

A normal is one gram equivalent of a solute per liter of solution.

Normality

Normality is the total no of gram equivalents of the solute present per liter of the
solution

Normal solutions

The definition of a normal solution is a solution that contains 1 gram

equivalent weight (gEW) per liter solution.

Units of Normality

The units for normal concentration are Eq/L. These units are often denoted
by a capital letter N (pronounced "normal").

mEq/L = 0.001 Eq/L

How to calculate equivalent weight

Eq.wt for acids and bases

M.wt of acid or base
Eq.wt =
No of H+ in acids or OH- in bases

Examples:

HCL the MW= 36.5 the EW = 36.5

H2SO4 the MW = 98 the EW = 49
H3PO4 the MW = 98 the EW = 32.7
NaOH the MW = 40 the EW = 40
Ca (OH)2 the MW = 74 the EW = 37

Eq.wt for salts

M.wt of salt
Eq.wt =
No of cations X valency or No of anions X valency
Examples:

KCL the MW= 74.55 the EW = (74.55 / 1 X 1) = 74.55

CaCl2 the MW= 110.98 the EW = (110.98 / 1 X 2) or (110.98 / 2 X 1) =
55.49
Na2CO3 the MW= 105.98 the EW = (105.98 / 1 X 2) or (105.98 / 2 X 1) =
52.99

Normality of solid solute

Examples:
Preparation of 1N NaOH solution
Preparation of 1N Ca(OH)2 solution
Preparation of 1N KCL solution

C
Caallccuullaattiioonnss::

Wt of solute (g) = N (Eq/l) X Eq.wt X V (L)

 N: the required normality
Eq.wt: equivalent weight of the solute
V: total volume in liters
P
Prroocceedduurree::

Dissolve 40 g of NaOH in a 1000 ml (1 liter) of water to prepare 1N

NaOH solution.
Dissolve 37 g of Ca (OH)2 in a 1000 ml (1 liter) of water to prepare 1N
Ca (OH)2 solution.
Dissolve 74.55 g of KCl in a 1000 ml (1 liter) of water to prepare 1N KCl
solution.

Normality of liquid solute

To prepare 1N solutions make the following steps:

Calculate the equivalent weight of the solute

Calculate the normality of the solute using the following formula:

% X density X 10
Normality (N) =
Eq.wt

Calculate the volume of the solute needed to prepare 1N solution using

the following formula:

N2 (required normality) X V2 (required volume) (ml)

V1 of solute(ml) =
N1 (original normality)
 Subtract the volume of solute from the total solution volume
Mix both volumes of solute and solvent to reach the total required
volume

Example1:

Preparation of 1N HCL solution

% percent Density M.wt

32 1.18 36.5

HCL normality = 10.345

Volume required from HCL = 96.66 ml

Complete to 1 liter with 903.33 ml distilled water

Example2:

Preparation of 1N H2SO4 solution

% percent Density M.wt

98 1.83 98

H2SO4 normality = 36.6

Volume required from H2SO4 = 27.32 ml

Complete to 1 liter with 972.67 ml distilled water

Dilution of solutions
Simple Dilution

A simple dilution is one in which a unit volume of a liquid material of interest

is combined with an appropriate volume of a solvent liquid to achieve the
desired concentration.

The dilution factor is the total number of unit volumes in which your material
will be dissolved. The diluted material must then be thoroughly mixed to
achieve the true dilution.

Example:

Dilute a serum sample 1:5 dilution as follow:

Combining 1 unit volume of serum (for example 200 l) + 4 unit volumes of
the saline (for example 800 l)

In this case the dilution factor is 5 (1 + 4 = 5 = dilution factor).

Serial Dilution

A serial dilution is simply a series of simple dilutions which amplifies the

dilution factor quickly beginning with a small initial quantity of material.

The source of dilution material for each step comes from the diluted
material of the previous.

In a serial dilution the total dilution factor at any point is the product of the
individual dilution factors in each step up to it.

Final dilution factor (DF) = DF1 * DF2 * DF3 etc

Example:

Using a primary stock solution (for example 2 mmol/l) prepares a

series of different concentrations using serial dilution as follow:
The initial step combines 1 unit volume of stock solution (100 ml) with 9 unit
volumes of distilled water (900 ml) = 1:10 dilution.

Prepare another 6 tubes each one contains 500 ml distilled water

Combines 1 unit volume of the first tube (500 ml) with the 500 ml distilled
water in the second tube

Combines 1 unit volume of the second tube (500 ml) with the 500 ml
distilled water in the third tube and so on until the last tube

The total dilution would be: 1:10 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 = 1:640

 Specific Dilution

It is used when we need to make a specific volume of known concentration

from stock solutions

To do this we use the following formula:

V1C1=V2C2

V1: the volume of stock we start with. (Unknown)

C1: the concentration of stock solution
V2: total volume needed at the new concentration
C2: the new concentration

Example:

Suppose we have 3 ml of a stock solution of 100 mg/ml and we want

to make 200 ml of solution having 25 mg/ ml.

V1 = (V2 x C2) / C1

V1 = (0.2 ml x 25 mg/ml) / 100 mg/ml

V1 = 0.05 ml, or 50 ml

So, we would take 0.05 ml stock solution and dilute it with 150 ml of solvent
to get the 200 ml of 25 mg/ ml solution needed
 "X" units

Stock solutions of stable compounds are routinely maintained in labs as

more concentrated solutions that can be diluted to working strength
when used in typical applications. The usual working concentration is
denoted as 1X. A solution 20 times more concentrated would be denoted
as 20X and would require a 1:20 dilution to restore the typical working
concentration.

Conversion of Conc. units

Conversion of Wt% Percent to molarity

Molarity (M) = (% X 10)/Molecular wt

Conversion of molarity to Wt% Percent

Wt% Percent = (M X Molecular wt)/ 10

Conversion of Wt% Percent to normality

Normality (N) = (% X 10)/Equivalent wt

Conversion of normality to Wt% Percent

Wt% Percent = (N X Equivalent wt)/ 10

Conversion of Normality to Molarity

Normality (N) = Molarity (M) X n

Conversion of Molarity to Normality

Molarity (M) = Normality (N) / n

Where n =

number of (H+) in acids or (OH-) in bases or valency in salts

Conversion of Wt% Percent to g/l

Wt% Percent = g/l / 10

Conversion of g/l to Wt% Percent

g/l = Wt% Percent X 10

 Conversion of Molarity to g/l

g/l = M X Molecular wt

Conversion of g/l to Molarity

M = Molecular wt / g/l

Conversion of Normality to g/l

g/l = M X Equivalent wt

Conversion of g/l to Normality

M = Equivalent wt / g/l

Examples:

1M NaCl 5.85% NaCl 58.5 g/l NaCl 1N NaCl

1M HCL 3.09% HCL --------------- 1N HCL

0.5M H2SO4 2.67% H2SO4 --------------- 1N H2SO4

1M NaOH 4% NaOH 40 g/l NaOH 1N NaOH

0.5M Ca(OH)2 3.7% Ca(OH)2 37 g/l Ca(OH)2 1N Ca(OH)2

0.5M Na2CO3 5.29% Na2CO3 52.99 g/l Na2CO3 1N Na2CO3