Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2016: Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition
GT2016
June 13 17, 2016, Seoul, South Korea
READINGS ON SPECIFIC GAS TURBINE FLAME BEHAVIOURS USING
AN INDUSTRIAL COMBUSTION MONITORING SYSTEM
Fabrice Giuliani
Combustion Bay One. E.U.
Corresponding author
Fabrice.Giuliani@CBOne.at
Markus Stuetz, Vanessa Moosbrugger
Combustion Bay One e.U.
Graz, Austria
ABSTRACT
The new energy mix places greater demands on power gas
turbine operation; precision combustion monitoring, therefore
has become a major issue. Unforeseen events such as
combustion instabilities can occur and represent a danger to
the integrity of the hot parts and also lead to a limitation of the
output power. This is usually accompanied by an increase in
maintenance costs. The enlarged off-design operating envelope
of gas turbines to adapt to a fast-changing grid has made this
issue even more acute, necessitating an expansion of the
operating envelope into areas that were for many engines
not foreseen in the original combustor design process. A good
understanding of what happens within the gas turbine
combustor is crucial. Complex and costly full-field
measurements such as laboratory optical instrumentation in
precision combustion diagnostics are not suitable for
permanent fleet deployment. For practical and financial
reasons, the monitoring should ideally be achieved with a
limited amount of discrete sensors. If installed and interpreted
correctly, fast response measurement chains could lead to a
better gas turbine combustion management, possibly yielding
considerable savings in terms of operating and maintenance
costs. The firm Meggitt Sensing System (MSS), assisted by
Combustion Bay One (CBOne), initiated an applied research
programme dedicated to this topic with MSS providing the
instrumentation and CBOne providing the facility and test
conditions. The objective was to investigate realistic
combustion phenomena in a precisely controlled and
reproducible way and to document the individual readings of
the heat-resistant fast pressure transducers mounted on the
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GT2016-56166
Hans Reiss
Meggitt Sensing Systems
Fribourg, Switzerland
Alexander Silbergasser
FH Joanneum
Graz, Austria
combustor casing, as well as the accelerometers mounted on
the outer surface of the machine. Particular attention was paid
to the correlation between these two types of sensor readings.
This paper reports on the monitoring of the flame using
piezoelectric dynamic pressure sensors and accelerometers in a
number of different situations that are relevant to the safe and
efficient operation of gas turbines. Discussed are single events
such as flame ignition, lean blow-out and flash-back, as well as
longer test sequences observing the effect of warming-up or the
presence of flame instability. The measurement chains and
processing techniques are discussed in detail. The atmospheric
test rig used for this purpose and the different testing
configurations required for each of these situations are also
illustrated in detail. The results and recommendations for their
implementation in an industrial context conclude this paper.
INTRODUCTION
With the new energy mix, conventional power systems
must adapt to a volatile grid load. This involves frequent start
and stops, off-design and part-load operations, which are
technically challenging for power gas turbines. Real-time
engine health monitoring is the key asset to keep operating and
maintenance costs as low as possible [1].
Meggitt Sensing Systems (MSS, Fribourg, Switzerland)
and Combustion Bay One (CBOne, Graz, Austria) embarked on
a cooperation focusing on combustion monitoring. CBOne was
looking for proven technology to monitor pulse combustion and
 MSS was looking for well-documented test cases permitting a
refined use of their acquisition chain. A cooperation between
Gas probe, EXHAUST
the two, whose aim was to achieve a better understanding of pressure &
gas turbine combustion, based on the reading of signals temperature
gathered from a limited amount of discrete sensors was ports (G1/2, 8*)
FLOW MIXER
established. It was decided to work together on the further
development of the MethaNull project [2]. Dynamic probe
ports (G1, 10*)
In practical terms, the aim was to gather experience and COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
build up a library of precisely controlled test cases for a better
interpretation of signals recorded in field application where in Optical
access (2*)
contrast to the test rig presented here, one cannot observe the BURNER PLATE
flame directly due to limitations in available instrumentation
and physical accessibility. This experience should contribute to
establishing a better decision-making tool regarding optimised PLENUM

maintenance, suitable for engines in production fleets.

Another aim was also to build-up a best practice using the Panel for SIREN
flow
available technologies for research and development aspects in
control
combustion. A compact sequence of operations that could and
become a benchmark testing method for combustors is ignition
suggested.
The test rig, the instrumentation, the specific points
investigated and the results are presented.

FIGURE 1: COMBUSTION TEST RIG

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
The MethaNull test rig
The test rig is a compact atmospheric combustion facility
that includes a plenum, a staged burner, a combustor casing and
an exhaust system. The burner itself is a premixed, lowly-
swirled burner placed in a strongly-swirled secondary flow. In
accordance with publication [2], the burner shall hereinafter be
referred to as the pilot burner and the secondary flow as
main air. Technical details on the burner and on the
MethaNull technology are outlined in the same reference; here
we consider configuration II with a concentric stage burner,
where the pilot burner is embedded in the main stage. This pilot
burner is connected to a siren that modulates the air flow. The
complete test rig can be seen in figure 1.
A flow control panel regulates the air and gas head
pressure levels. The air supply system is connected to a
pressurised air network (8 bar). A commercial propane bottle
(type UN 1965 mixture C, 46.3 MJ/kg, 2 kg/m3) provides the
gas supply. The ignition system is embedded. Redundant
analogue and digital displays report on the air and gas flow
conditions.
The plenum air supply is split into cooling air for the
whole system and combustion air for the main air supply. The
combustion chamber casing is protected from the flame by a
heat-resistant glass tube that is fixed on the head plate, where
the flame settles. The cooling air flows between the casing and
the glass tube until it mixes with the burnt gases in the
convergent section called the mixer. A further chimney section
is added to condition the plume flow and to measure exhaust
gas contents near the outlet.
Two optical access port-holes allow the flame tip and of
the flames rear to be observed i.e. to check whether there is a
diffusion flame or not.
Although the combustor is atmospheric, a robust
construction was chosen for safety reasons. Theoretically, the
rig is designed to operate at up to 6 bar.
Some dimensions are only provided to give a sense of
scale. The liner (glass tube) dimensions are 100 mm diameter
and 410 mm length. The combustor casing has a 160 mm
diameter (same for the plenum). The length from the front plate
to the exhaust is 1240 mm.
Operating points
The operating points described in this publication are
summarised in table 1. The first is the standard point used for
steady versus pulsed conditions. The second investigated type
of operation is the lean blow out limit (LBO) for detection of
the extinction, where the fuel content is reduced by half. The
third and last type of operation, a reproducible flashback is
achieved under these air flow conditions by injecting the same
quantity of fuel in the main stage as in the pilot. The ability to
deliberately produce controlled flashback conditions is in fact a
key feature of this test rig and is instrumental in this particular
study. The burner is designed for experimental purposes only
it is not commercial. To make this burner flashback-free, the
main air must be augmented by a third. All points involve the
pilot burner only, with the exception of the last one (flashback)
where the main gas is turned on. The ratio of cooling air to
burning air is 2:1.

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 TABLE 1: OPERATING CONDITIONS the subsequent data acquisition and processing of the discrete
sensor locations.
Confined The construction of the devices makes operation under
jet flame elevated conditions of pressure and temperature possible. The
Standard point siren is dimensioned to operate with inlet air pressure of up to
Pilot air [g/s] 1,13 20 bar on the high pressure side and 10 bar on the low pressure
Pilot gas [g/s] 0,13 side (or absolute pressure in the combustor). Air temperature
Main air [g/s] 4,71 can reach 750 K as the mechanism is cooled down.
Main gas [g/s] 0
The siren is mounted upstream from the burner. It can be
adapted to compensate for damping and multiple reflexions of
Cooling air [g/s] 11,76
the pulsation in the feedline of the burner by tuning the variable
U_ref pilot (mixture) [m/s] 13,2
amplitude. Anemometry measurements taken at a burners
Thermal power pilot [kW] 6,02
outlet reveal a near ideal sine shape [3].
Lean blow out limit
Pilot gas [g/s] 0,065
Main gas [g/s] 0 NOZZLE
Thermal power pilot [kW] 3,01
HIGH LOW
AIR JET
PRESSURE PRESSURE
Reproduceable flash-back
Pilot gas [g/s] 0,13
ROTATING TOOTHED WHEEL
Main gas [g/s] 0,13 COMBINED TO A MOBILE SHAFT
ALLOWING A VARIABLE PENETRATION OF THE WHEEL
Thermal power [kW] 12,038 IN THE JET

Precision air flow modulation with a siren

A siren with tunable frequency and variable amplitude is
used as a pulsator on the feeding air situated upstream from the
burner. This technology was developed by Giuliani et al. [3, 4].
The siren is a compact pulsator producing a wide range of
frequencies (0-1 kHz in this configuration), with the feature of
variable amplitude which makes it as flexible to use as a
loudspeaker, but with the additional advantage of achieving a
higher sound pressure level and being able to work with hot air.
NO PULSATION MODERATE PULSATION STRONG PULSATION
Figure 2 depicts the main components and functionality of
the device, model SIREN-3G (Combustion Bay One, Graz,
CASING OF THE ROTATING WHEEL
Austria). A rotating toothed wheel periodically shears a jet of
air and produces a sound. The pulsation frequency is the NOZZLE
rotating velocity of the shaft multiplied by the number of teeth.
A mechanism allows the penetration of the wheel in the air jet
to be varied and thereby the amplitude of pulsation to be
controlled. If the jet of air is choked at the nozzle, the peak-to- INLET / HIGH
peak amplitude of pulsation is proportional to the maximum PRESSURE
SIDE
covered section of the jet by the tooth of the wheel. Therefore,
no pulsation occurs when the wheel is kept away from the jet
(Figure 2, top) and maximum pulsation amplitude occurs when
the tooth penetrates the jet to the greatest possible extent.
Precision servo motors enable constant value pulsation to
be set at a given frequency and amplitude, and controlled
OUTLET / LOW
transients to be driven at a given frequency and/or amplitude. MECHANISM FOR MOVING IN MECHANISM FOR
PRESSURE SIDE
/ MOVING OUT THE WHEEL TRANSMISSION & CONTROLS
Two analogue signals indicate the pulsation frequency (one FROM THE JET OF THE ROTAING WHEEL
TTL upfront = one passage of a tooth of the wheel initiated in
the jet) and the pulsation amplitude (voltage proportional to the
relative position of the wheel compared to the nozzle centre) in FIGURE 2: CBOnes SIREN WITH VARIABLE
real time. These control signals are used as reference signals in AMPLITUDE. TOP: PRINCIPLES. BOTTOM: PICTURE
OF THE DEVICE

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 Industrial combustion monitoring system

The acquisition chain for dynamic parameters consists of

industrial sensors, signal conditioners and an acquisition card
from the firm Meggitt Sensing Systems. This equipment is used
for online monitoring of industrial machinery such as gas
turbine combustion monitoring. Meggitt and CBOne are
working together on a research and development project where
the acquisition chain is tested under precisely controlled
combustion conditions and this cooperation forms a synergy
with the MethaNull programme [2].

The acquired dynamic parameters are the dynamic pressure

(six heat-resistant pressure transducers type CP232, one placed
on the plenum, five flush-mounted at the inner skin of the
combustor casing) and the structure vibrations (two
accelerometers type CA134, flush-mounted on the outer surface
of the plenum and of the combustor casing). The standard
sensitivity of the CP232 is 800 pC/bar and for the CA134 it is
10 pC/g. Detailed technical specifications can be found in the
reference [5].

The test rig was equipped for this purpose with ten probe
ports with an inner G1' thread placed at different locations
along the plenum and the combustor casing. Special adapters
were designed so that changing the sensor or permutation of
accelerometer with a pressure sensor was easy. This is FIGURE 3: SENSOR LOCATIONS
illustrated in figure 3.

The different locations and angles were chosen so that they

were not placed at repeated intervals. This avoids placing X
sensors spaced N meters from each other, when N happens to
be the wavelength of a standing wave and due to shear bad luck
all the sensors are placed at the nodes of this standing wave.
The nomenclature of probe position is explained in the
same figure. The angle location follows an hourly-pattern, with
one hour representing a 30 degree angle. Measurements at the
same level at two or more angles help to identify azimuthal
modes. The location along different levels allows axial modes
to be identified. Compared to the reference surface that
corresponds to the burners outlet, the levels are situated
respectively at -275 mm (-2PL), -210 mm (-1PL), 75 mm
(+1CC), 150 mm (+2CC) and 270 mm (+3CC).
Radial modes are unlikely to occur in this rig, although
theoretically it is possible to screw or unscrew the adapters so
that the sensor tip location varies compared to the burners
centreline.
Data acquisition and processing
Each sensor is connected to a corresponding charge
amplifier situated in close proximity of the machine, using
current-mode transmission. The charge amplifier output is then
connected to a galvanic separation unit situated in the control
room. It reconverts current signals to voltage signals as well as
it provides protection against frame voltages and similar
artefacts. Particular attention is paid to the shielding of the
cables and the grounding in order to ameliorate the signal to
noise ratio. The quality of the power supply of the converters is
also of importance in terms of keeping the 50 Hz grid
perturbation at a low level. Finally, the output signal of the
galvanic separator units is connected to the input terminals of
the acquisition card. Further details can be found in the
reference [6].
The data acquisition is achieved using a MEGGITT
XMV16/XIO16T card pair located in an industrial standard 1U
rack (VM600 Slimline). The card pair features simultaneous
(i.e. non-multiplexed) and continuous data acquisition on 16
dynamic channels and 4 synchronisation channels, with up to
98 kHz sampling frequency per channel and 24-bit precision).
The data acquisition features are user-configurable via software
and include typical time-domain and frequency domain
capacities, as well as data extractions.

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 Synchro. siren
VM 600
Piezosensor 1
Piezosensor 2
Piezosensor 3
Signal conditionning
Piezosensor 4 Live
analysis VibroSight
and
Piezosensor 5
recording
Piezosensor 6
at wish
Accelerometer 1
Accelerometer 2
Custom history database
Ext. Microphone 1 for analysis using
VibroSight
Ext. Microphone 2
FIGURE 4: MEGGITTS MEASUREMENT CHAIN
In our case, as shown in figure 3 for the list of sensors and
figure 4 for the data acquisition, a total of 11 dynamic channels
(two accelerometers, six pressure transducers, two external
microphones, one synchronisation TTL signal coming from the
siren) and one synchronisation channel (the TTL is duplicated
for order tracking purposes) are connected to the card. The
sampling frequency of the XMV16 was set to 25.6 kHz for all
11 channels.
Since the domain of interest for this particular burner is the
range 0-1 kHz, it makes sense to reorganise one signal chunk
into n sub-sampled signal chunks. The reason for this is that it
is thereby possible to obtain a representative spectrum on the
frequency domain of interest derived from averaging n spectra,
faster than if we were considering the whole accessible
spectrum. As a result, the average frequency peak gain and the
most represented phase angle related to this peak are
determined with greater precision. With a 25.6 kHz sampling
frequency, the cut-off frequency is 12.8 kHz. If we want the
range 0-1 kHz to be relatively alias-free, then n=5 appears to be
a correct sub-sampling factor (the cut-off frequency is then
divided by 5, hence 2.56 kHz). The reorganisation follows: the
first sub-sampled chunk, starting with the first value of the
original signal and then selecting every fifth value from then
on. The second chunk starts with the second value of the
original signal and then selects every fifth from then on and
so on. This process highlights the non-stochastic nature of the
data. This interleaved sub-sampling is possible in post-
processing using both methods detailed below.
Figure 4 shows how the signal is processed and stored. The
acquisition card communicates with a PC via an Ethernet cable.
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The application software is Meggitt's standard software
VibroSight SW. It manages the configuration of the card pair,
data acquisition and data storage as well as visualisation and
Conventional (e.g. Matlab)
analysis. In the context of this study its online monitoring
features were used to evaluate the actual test execution in real
REPLAY
time, as well as for the detailed post-analysis following the
tests. The software provides the possibilities of generating two
databases on demand to document the test or saving the entire
measurement.
The first database is a custom history database. It records
Post-process options
pre-configured extractions (such as true peak-to-peak or RMS)
as well as reference signals (such as the TTL siren reference) at
one second intervals. Time-wise, it also logs pieces of signal
and/or processed bits of signal such as power spectra. The
database is designed to travel quickly through time, identify
High resolution (26kHz) and situate the parts of signal to be processed further in detail.
database using *.TDMS
format
The rate at which the individual data elements are stored can be
adapted. Logging rates and data density can be customised to a
great extent in order to achieve the appropriate logging
footprint throughout a test sequence. The logging rate can be
changed manually or can be automated e.g. alarm-based on
the RMS level of one sensor. If it reaches a certain level, then
the rate of acquisition is automatically augmented. For instance,
during warm-up, one dataset of 0.2 s time waveform (or time
signal) and the corresponding spectrum are saved relatively
slowly at a rate of 10 s. During the core part of the experiment,
the rate is increased to saving every second, providing more
details but also associated file sizes.
The second means of storage is the continuous and
seamless time waveform of each dynamic channel at full
sampling frequency, in this case 25.6 kHz. It is conditioned
under the form of single datasets saved under *.TDMS format
(a standard developed by National Instruments). With our
settings, one file per channel was recorded every minute. Put
together, the dataset is reconstituted seamlessly for post-
processing purposes.
Two options for post-processing are then possible. The
*.TDMS dataset is converted back into analog form and fed
into into the VM600 again. After that, VibroSight performs the
analysis based on its configuration in the same way as the
original run. After the digitally stored signal is converted into
an analog signal and fed into the card in replay mode, the
repeatability of the converted signal matches the results from
the original acquisition and processing with a fidelity of 1%,
provided the same configuration is used during the initial and
the replayed run. This small remaining difference is mainly due
to the stochastic nature of the signals and asynchronous
sampling and processing cycle. This is the replay option. The
second option is the direct processing of the *.TDMS data in
digital form using standard processing software such as Matlab.
We carried out both options within the framework of this study.
The practical aspect is the possibility of processing data
from the same physical test sequences multiple times, with
different focuses and multiple processing configurations. This
capacity allows experimental test time to be optimised and is
applicable to real engines as well as test rigs.
5 Copyright 2016 by ASME
 Study of
Study of warm-up frequency
response
S P S P S P

Frequency ramps

Gathered sensors signals Sirens frequency of excitation

S Steady P Pulsed

FIGURE 5: ONEDAY EXPERIMENT

Power spectrum (log)- Dyn03b CP03

14:00
(No flame)
13:55
PULSED

13:50
Flame

13:45

13:40

13:35
Time

(No flame)
13:30

13:25
STEADY
Flame

13:20

13:15

13:10
(No flame)
13:05
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)

FIGURE 6: POWER SPECTRUM ON THE LINE CP03 RECORDED DURING TWO CONSECUTIVE WARM UP
SEQUENCES, STEADY FIRST AND THEN PULSED.

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 Log(amplitude) Phase shift
MEASUREMENTS CP03 CP03 vs. sirene [rad]
15:19 15:19
Methodology, basic checks and warm-up sequence
The practical aspect of this methodology is the possibility 15:18 15:18
to conduct a complete suite of test sequences in one take. 15:17 15:17
Figure 5 shows the history database for a set of laboratory tests 15:16 15:16
conducted on 9th November between 9:00 and 17:00. On that
day two test sequences were to be covered, the first one 15:15 15:15
concerning the effect of the warm-up and the second one on the 15:14 15:14
flames response to forced pulsation with the siren.
15:13 15:13
This plot is edited with VibroSight, which enables the
navigation through the history database, selecting parts of 15:12 15:12
signal piecewise and pursuing them if required in processing. 15:11 15:11
The steps of the siren frequency (usually at 365 Hz, plus a few
15:10 15:10
tests with ramps at 210 and 515 Hz) are visible in the figure, as
are the acquired lines of dynamic pressure (true peaks), with 15:09 15:09
CP02 magnified three times to observe the behaviour of this 15:08 15:08
sensor, particularly during the warm-up tests.
15:07 15:07
200 400 600 800 200 400 600 800

Time

Figure 6 shows how the power spectrum varies with time
as a result of the machines warm-up process. The two last
sequences of warm-up displayed in figure 5 are observable
between 13:10 and 13:56. A first sequence of twenty minutes
under steady state conditions is followed by an extinction and
cool-down, followed by a second sequence under pulsed
conditions (365 Hz, the first harmonic at 730 Hz is clearly
observable). The higher the acoustic power the darker the plot.
The repeated J pattern at about 500 Hz is noteworthy on the
plot; it drifts for about 10 minutes on a frequency span of
15 Hz. This is partly related to the warm-up of the air and
therefore to the higher speed of sound. The external
microphones situated at ambient temperature (1.3 m away from
the facilitys exhaust) repeat this pattern (not shown), which
excludes an artefact on the piezoelectric dynamic pressure
sensors due to their warm-up.
This observation highlights why precision in frequency and
in amplitude is required for combustion monitoring and control.
The acoustic and structural behaviour adapts to changes of
operating points and possibly to climatic changes (e.g. air
temperature at the intake and humidity).
If a pressure transducer is incorrectly mounted, it can
report signal artefacts due to mechanical coupling of housing
vibration onto the sensing element. If those were to happen they
can be proven to be strongly correlated to the reading of the
accelerometer (mechanical vibration). The systematic
comparison of plots similar to figure 6 allows this problem to
be detected and rectified quickly.
Flame response to frequency scans using the siren
The following method is used to detect at which
frequencies of excitation thermoacoustic couplings are met.
This is part of MethaNull technology. It is also a method
recommended for combustor characterisation regarding
combustion stability.
Time
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
-5 0 5 -2 0 2
FIGURE 7: SCANNING FREQUENCY RAMPS FOR
ORDER-TRACKING OF THE FLAMES REPONSE,
AMPLITUDE (LEFT) AND PHASE (RIGHT)
The siren draws a pattern called a ramp when modulating
its rotational speed. The excitation frequency grows steadily at
10 Hz/s from 0 to 800 Hz and back. Three consecutive ramps
are shown in figure 7.
It is possible to record the amplitude and phase of a given
sensor along the trace of the ramp. The amplitude and phase are
coloured with an out-of-plane component on the plot. It is
remarkable that the values repeat themselves at a given
frequency along each branch of the ramps.
The VM600 piloted by VibroSight is designed to perform
order tracking. Amplitude and phase (= angle difference or
phase shift between the measured signal and the reference
signal, here the TTL of the siren with one upwards front per
single pulsation) along the siren excitation are extracted, similar
to what is usually used when performing order tracking
vibration analysis on a rotating shaft. This is shown in figure 8.
The peak at 365 Hz is detected, despite the constant fluctuation
in frequency of the siren. This plot was produced in post-
processing (replay mode), but can also be generated on-the-fly.
The resonant frequency with related phase angle is also seen as
a cluster of points at a given polar angle on the Nyquist plot.
Note the constant saw tooth pattern of the phase clearly
observable in the low frequency domain, this is related to the
variation of the sirens frequency, resulting in a phase slide.

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 changes in the spectrum profile. As a side-effect the controlled
pulsation affects the tone colour without modifying it
dramatically.
Since this set-up and this burner design was specifically
designed for this purpose, we did not encounter a situation
where we triggered a violent combustion instability on the
investigated range, only preferential frequencies sensitive to
pulsation where the amplitude and the phase remained well
under control. Hence reducing the amplitude systematically
meant a return to steady state; this is what is well repeated
along the tracked-order trace of sensor CP05 in figure 9 (top).
However, if signals of relevant modes were present in real
engines, they could indeed be detected and precisely located
using this method.
Sensor trace Dyn05b CP05, amplitude
15:24
15:24
15:24
15:24
amplitude
15:23

Time range
modulated
15:23
at fixed
15:23 frequency
15:23
15:22
15:22
15:22
15:22
300 350 400 450
Frequency range [Hz]

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Log (P) [a.u.]

FIGURE 8: BODE AND NYQUIST PLOTS (SENSOR

CP05). TOP: AMPLITUDE AND PHASE DISPLAYED VS.
FREQUENCY. BOTTOM: THE SAME, IN POLAR
COORDINATES.

The analysis of the phase and amplitude response to a

given excitation frequency allows the flame to be modelled, in
order to derive a flame transfer function for instance [7, 8] and
predict its behaviour in operation. Our process reveals
important patterns such as the peak of resonance frequency of
the flame at 365 Hz and the corresponding phase angle.

Analysis at fixed frequency

After the ramps were completed and analysed, the
frequencies where resonance was observed could be
investigated separately.
Figure 9 shows the trace of the on-off pulsation measured FIGURE 9: TRACE OF THE SIGNAL WITH
by sensor CP05. When comparing the amplitude spectra of the INTERMITTENT PULSATION (TOP) AND
situations with and without pulsation (bottom plot), the COMPARISON BETWEEN STEADY STATE AND
excitation peak is immediately apparent, followed by slight PULSED AT 365 Hz (BOTTOM, Y-AXIS UNIT: Pa)

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 behave synchronously (same phase angle). CP06 observes a
lower amplitude and is phase-shifted by -35 degrees [modulo
360] in comparison with the two others. This points towards a
sound wave moving axially and not tangentially, in accordance
with previous works carried out with the siren and observations
made on the flame dynamics [2].
However, a similar analysis performed on an industrial
configuration is not trivial. The readings of all of the sensors
must be cross-checked. The idea is to separate the acoustics
related to the flame from other sound sources originating from
the machinery and air flow, as well as from pseudo-sound
hitting the probes. To separate all these effects, an approach like
the modal decomposition described by Lengani et al. [10] is a
promising option.

Detection of single events

The time signal is analysed with regard to the study of non-
periodic and rare events such as ignition and flame-out, or
spikes usually related to a malfunction. Figure 11 depicts a
recorded misfiring observed by four fast-pressure sensors in the
combustor and two microphones placed 1.3 m away from the
facilitys centreline. Simply put, this produces a very loud
boom. Such events, or spikes, can be detected with
thresholding methods that generate an alarm. Another marker is
the RMS of the signal. The agreement of all signals can be
observed on the plot. Regarding the on-the-fly processing, a
compromise must be made between the frequency resolution
required for refined spectral analysis and the longest affordable
time chunk required for rapid detection of such events.

Figure 10: AMPLITUDE AND PHASE-SHIFT MEASUREMENT

AT FIXED EXCITATION FREQUENCY (365 Hz)

Speaking in terms of the sound pressure level [9], the

levels observed range from 132 dB in the plenum (82 Pa RMS)
to 151 dB (710 Pa RMS) in the combustion chamber, with an
average difference of -2 dB when moving from pulsation to
steady conditions.

Figure 10 presents the amplitude and phase angle measured

at three axial sensor positions. The two first sensors CP03 and
CP04 are situated at plane +1CC (75 mm from the front plate)
and CP06 is at plane +3CC (270 mm away). CP03 and CP04
are placed at an angle of 90 degrees and CP03 and CP06 are
aligned. The first observation is that if both amplitudes FIGURE 11: A MISFIRING OBSERVED BY 6 SENSORS
measured at 75 mm are consistent with each other, they also (TIME SIGNALS)

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 Figure 12 shows the time signal of single events, as seen
from the three pressure transducers placed in the combustion
chamber and under steady flow conditions. The sequence
includes four lean blow out extinctions, where the operating
point is brought down from standard to the LBO limit. This is
followed by four controlled flashbacks, this time moving from
the design point to the flashback condition as described in table
1. These flashbacks are marked by the four spikes clearly
visible between 14:23 and 14:24.
4 Time signals of three pressure sensors placed in line [Pa]
x 10
5 sensor locations. While it is obvious that the sensor position
CP03
DISCUSSION
Dynamic pressure measurement in the hot section of gas
turbines has become a wide-spread practice; however, it is still
strongly linked to property, as all specific parameters such as
frequencies of interest, limits, processing methods, sensor type
and placement tend to be adapted to each specific design.
Practical questions on the choice of fleet instrumentation and its
installation have to be answered in each specific case. Often,
available data is insufficient to make fact-based decisions.
Considering the sensor position: rather than being able to
place the instrumentation in an ideal location from a
measurement standpoint, numerous constraints (mechanical,
obstructions, accessibility) impose a small choice of possible
and mounting method have a strong influence on the result, in

0
practice it is often not known how great the influence actually
-5
is. Does the neighbouring sensor see the same dynamics or not,
14:21 14:22 14:23 14:24 14:25
and if not, how much do they deviate due to the different
4* LBO EXTINCTION 4*FLASHBACK
5
x 10
4
location and orientation?
One result of this study is to directly compare the readings
between sensors in the same experiments and thereby quantify
CP05

how well they match each other for different signal content, at
-5
14:21 14:22 14:23 14:24 14:25 least in terms of magnitude. This could be used to conduct
4
plausibility checks for readings and comparisons with real
x 10
4 turbines as well.
2 Processing parameters: any analysis of combustion
CP06

0 dynamics has to well establish a suitable set of processing

-2
14:21 14:22 14:23
Time
FIGURE 12: TIME SIGNAL FOR LBO AND FLASHBACK
(Y-AXIS UNIT: Pa)
The fast pressure sensor CP03 is near to the front plate.
CP05 is placed 75 mm behind and CP06 is 195 mm
downstream of CP03. With regard to the flame, CP03 is
between plate and flame, CP05 is slightly downstream of the
flame, and CP06 is well behind.
The difference between the patterns observed is
remarkable. Prior to an LBO the flame is extremely noisy,
because it has a strong dynamic. CP05 and CP06 report this
with a higher dynamic than CP03. Flame extinction is observed
everywhere again with a higher signal to noise ratio at
positions 5 and 6.
What CP03 better reports on is the sudden move of the
flame in the plenum at flashback. Spikes can be clearly
observed. This is partly observable, but still muffled at
positions 5 and 6, which are situated behind the flame front.
Examined alone, each signal piece might lead to a different
interpretation. Here, the importance of the sensor placement is
emphasised as well as the need to cross-check the information
with a second source regarding combustion monitoring.
parameters to resolve the phenomena of interest. In the case of
14:24 14:25
FFT-based data, fundamental limitations and specificity of this
processing apply (e.g. the choice of the sampling frequency, the
sample length, the resulting frequency step and cut-off). Time-
resolved signal chunk analysis can be preferential for the
detection of single events such as ignition or flashback. Often,
opposing effects require a compromise such as balancing time
resolution and frequency resolution. Searching for short spikes
and achieving high accuracy in frequency and phase
relationship is not possible with the same processing. While
multiple processing sets can be used in lab experiments or as
in this study via post-processing or replayed runs, most of the
available online equipment suitable for permanent fleet
instrumentation has limitations that leave few choices.
Specifically the FFT parameters such as number or lines,
frequency span, windowing functions, cycle duration (overlap)
and extraction algorithms influence considerably how well the
results pick up the most relevant or critical dynamics
components.
This study also allows us to illustrate and quantify the
influence of such parameters with real flame examples, which
also highlights the importance of such a careful configuration
tuning in real gas turbines.
The direct comparison of limited (field-worthy)
instrumentation with more fully fledged laboratory
instrumentation illustrates how well certain flame phenomena
can be picked up by limited field instrumentation. Based on the
above, this demonstrates the potential but also the limits of
typical field instrumentation. With that knowledge, better

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 methods can be established to increase the diagnostics coverage
through enhanced configurations and processing methods
CONCLUSIONS
A well-controlled laboratory combustor was assessed using
an industrial monitoring system. A methodology was developed
to conduct consecutive testing of different configurations in one
single take. The change in acoustic and vibration patterns as an
effect of the machines temperature was noted. Tunable flow
oscillation enabled the identification of the different
frequencies of combustion resonance and these were
investigated one by one at variable amplitudes of pulsation.
Bode plots on combustion stability could be edited on-the-fly
and exploited. Single events were described, and probe number
and placement, as well as acquisition and processing
parameters were taken into consideration. Datasets and
experience were gathered in the meantime as a best practice
was developed.
Based on the results of this study, the following
assessments can be made:
First, the methodology presented here is ready for testing
in an industrial context. The next logical step is validation
under realistic conditions. The equipment exists, works, and is
suitable for permanent fleet installation. It can be integrated
physically into the usual on-site installation (cabinets, sensors,
computers) and be implemented into the plant data
management system or even control systems using interfaces.
Second, a link between laboratory combustor
characterisation and industrial combustion monitoring has been
drawn. Features like continuous data recording and a post-
processing capacity allows laboratory work to be extended to
fleet engines, without requiring additional equipment on site.
Therefore laboratory and fleet context are not as separate as in
the past, allowing a certain amount of exploration and even
design validation work outside the engine test bed, directly on
the fleet. In particular highly sophisticated but also highly
critical combustion designs might be accompanied into the field
by the designers, which was not easily possible in the past for
practical reasons regarding equipment installation.
Third, precision combustion monitoring can effectively
reduce operation and maintenance costs. The combination of
control or protective functionality with additional data
collection, condition monitoring or engine characterisation
seems suitable to benefit from accumulated running time, and
wherever needed the default controls can also be adjusted or
adapted. This should support OEMs and R&D teams to
observe their designs in the field and react in a well-timed
manner in case changes are needed or new phenomena are
detected. If online systems can provide a sufficient amount of
detail in addition to the small subset of data used by controls,
new methods or algorithms can be established based on real
engine operation on production fleets, which would otherwise
necessitate costly test campaigns and dedicated laboratory
instrumentation.
11
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The programme MethaNull is financially supported by the
JITU-PreSeed Grant (Contract P1302031-PSI01) of the
Austrian Federal Ministry for Economy, Family and Youth
under guidance of the Austria Wirtschaftsservice GmbH. We
would like to pay tribute to all parties, and particularly Soren
Charareh.
Thanks to Prof. Holger Flhr, Lukas Andracher and
Richard Wagner from FH Joanneum for sharing their laboratory
and technical facilities with us.
Special thanks to Rafael Heinz from Heideco, Thomas
Leitgeb-Simandl and Fabrice Guelmine from CBOne, and
Rebecca Lewis.
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