Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Herman Gluck
Thursday March 29, 2012
2
We will approach this subject in the following way:
3
4
Examples of the Gauss-Bonnet Theorem.
= 4 = 2 (S) .
5
Convex surfaces.
6
Let N: S S2 be the Gauss map, with differential
= Area(S2) = 4 = 2 (S) .
8
Area S = 0 2 sin d = 2 (1 cos ) ,
hence S K d(area) = 1 Area S = 2 (1 cos ) .
The curvature of S = 1/radius = 1 / sin .
The geodesic curvature g of S is cos / sin , hence
S g ds = g length(S)
= (cos / sin ) 2 sin = 2 cos .
Therefore
S K d(area) + S g ds = 2 (1 cos ) + 2 cos
= 2 = 2 (S) .
9
Geodesic curvature as a rate of turning.
10
The geodesic curvature of at (s) is
= g(s) M(s) .
11
Problem 2. Show that
Conclude that
2 = g2 + kn2 ,
since 2 = |"|2 .
13
Then we can write
14
Then
But
g(s) = '(s) .
15
In other words, we have shown
16
Total geodesic curvature.
18
If we repeat the preceding constructions for a piecewise
smooth curve with corners at p1 , ..., pk and exterior angles
1 , ..., k at these corners, then the total geodesic curvature
of is given by
19
Problem 4. Let 1 , 2 , .... be a sequence of piecewise
geodesic curves on the surface S , with a common starting
point p and a common ending point q , which converges
in some suitable sense to the smooth curve from p to q .
20
The area of a spherical triangle.
+ + = .
21
It turns out that
+ + > ,
+ + = T.
22
Proof that + + = T .
( / 2) 4 = 2 .
23
There are two such lunes in the picture below.
Two more lunes each have area 2 , and the final two lunes
each have area 2 .
24
Our geodesic triangle in covered three times by these lunes,
and its antipodal image is also covered three times. The
other regions are covered once by the union of the six lunes.
Thus
equivalently,
+ + = + T,
or
+ + = T,
as claimed.
25
According to Marcel Berger in his book,
26
Problem 5. Recall the law of cosines in Euclidean geometry:
c2 = a2 + b2 2 a b cos .
27
Show that the law of cosines in spherical geometry is
28
The Gauss-Bonnet Theorem for a spherical triangle
with geodesic sides.
29
Proof. Let T also denote the area of the triangle T ,
and let , and denote the interior angles.
+ + = T / R2 .
= T / R2 + 3 ( + + )
= ( + + ) + 3 ( + + )
= 2 ,
as claimed.
32
No matter what point we choose in the top face a , the
unit normal vector will point straight up. So the Gauss
image Na of the entire face a is the north pole of S2 .
33
The Gauss image of the vertex v , according to the same
common sense, should be the geodesic triangle shaded in
the figure, that is, the upper right front eighth of S2 . The
points of this geodesic triangle represent the outer normals
to the possible "tangent planes" to the cube at the vertex v .
34
Conclusions.
35
Given a polyhedral surface in 3-space, how much
Gaussian curvature is carried by each of its vertices?
36
We pick an origin O as shown, and draw through it
the unique planes orthogonal to the edges E and F .
Their intersection is a line orthogonal to the face b ,
and on that line we mark off the unit vector Nb , which
is the Gauss image of the entire face b .
37
The dihedral angle between the planes orthogonal to the
edges E and F is the same as the angle on S2 between
the geodesic arc connecting Na to Nb and the geodesic
arc connecting Nb to Nc .
38
The area of Nv on S2 is the excess of the sum of its
interior angles over the expected value (p 2) from
Euclidean geometry:
39
If K(v) denotes the total Gaussian curvature associated
with the vertex v on the polyhedral surface S , then
40
The Gauss-Bonnet Theorem for a closed polyhedral
surface in Euclidean 3-space.
K(S) = v K(v) .
41
Proof. It will be convenient to assume that all faces of S
are triangles. We can easily achieve this by adding some
extra edges if necessary.
42
Then
K(S) = v K(v) = v 2 (angle sum at v)
= 2 V (angle sum at all vertices)
= 2 V (angle sum of all triangles)
= 2 V F
= 2 V 3 F + 2 F
= 2 V 2 E + 2 F
= 2 (V E + F)
= 2 (S) ,
as claimed.
43
The Gauss-Bonnet Theorem for a compact polyhedral
surface with boundary in Euclidean 3-space.
45
THEOREM. Let S be a compact polyhedral surface
with boundary S in Euclidean 3-space. Then
46
Note that
47
Problem 7. Show how the polyhedral version of the
Gauss-Bonnet Theorem converges in the limit to the
smooth version, first for smooth closed surfaces, and
then for compact smooth surfaces with boundary.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SchwarzsPolyhedron.html
49
The local Gauss-Bonnet Theorem.
50
R K d(area) + R g(s) ds + i=0k i = 2 .
53
We can write [DW/dt] = < DW/dt , N W(t) >
g(s) = [D'/ds] .
54
LEMMA 1. Let X(u, v) be an orthogonal parametrization
of a neighborhood on an oriented surface S in R3 , and
let W(t) be a smooth field of unit vectors along the curve
(t) = X(u(t), v(t)) on S . Then
[DW/dt] = (EG)1/2 {Gu dv/dt Ev du/dt} + d/dt ,
where (t) is the angle from Xu to W(t) in the given
orientation.
55
Example 1.
56
E = 1, F = 0, G = 1
So Gu = 0 = Ev .
[DW/dt] = d/dt ,
which is correct.
57
Example 2 (Polar coordinates in the punctured plane).
Ev = 2v Gu = 0
58
Then for any vector field W(t) along this curve, we have
= du/dt + d/dt .
59
And since u = t , we have du/dt = 1 .
60
Proof of Lemma 1.
By definition,
62
Recall from Chapter 4. Intrinsic Geometry of Surfaces,
Problem 7, that
63
Problem 8. If V(t) and W(t) are unit vector fields along
the curve (t) , and (t) is the angle from V(t) to W(t) ,
show that
64
LEMMA 2. In an orthogonal parametrization,
the Gaussian curvature K is given by
65
Example. Let's check out this formula for a round sphere
of radius R .
66
E = <Xu , Xu> = R2 sin2v
F = <Xu , Xv> = 0
G = <Xv , Xv> = R2
EG = R4 sin2v (EG)1/2 = R2 sin v
Ev = 2 R2 sin v cos v Gu = 0
K = (EG)1/2 { (Ev (EG)1/2)v + (Gu (EG)1/2)u }
= R2(sin v)1{ (2 R2 sin v cos v (R2 sin v)1)v}
= R2(sin v)1 {2 sin v}
= R2 ,
as expected.
67
Proof of Lemma 2.
Eu = 111 E + 211 F
Fu Ev = 111 F + 211 G
Ev = 112 E + 212 F
Gu = 112 F + 212 G
Fv Gu = 122 E + 222 F
Gv = 122 F + 222 G
69
In the present case, we have an orthogonal parametrization
of our surface, so F 0 . So we can write simple explicit
formulas for the Christoffel symbols, as follows:
111 = Eu / E 211 = Ev / G
112 = Ev / E 212 = Gu / G
122 = Gu / E 222 = Gv / G .
70
If we insert these values of the Christoffel symbols into
formula (4) from Chapter 4, which we copied above, we get
71
Proof of the local Gauss-Bonnet Theorem.
72
Proof. Consider the unit vector field W(s) = '(s) along
the curve : I R . This is well-defined along each of
the smooth arcs ([si , si+1]) , but has two possible values at
each vertex (si) , with the exterior angle i representing
the angle between them.
g(s) = [D'/ds]
73
Consider now two of the three terms from the left-hand side
of the local Gauss-Bonnet Theorem:
Since (s) is the angle from Xu(s) to '(s) , the two terms
75
To apply this in the present situation, let
Then
so
R (EG)1/2 {Gu dv/ds Ev du/ds} ds
76
On the other hand, by Lemma 2, we have
and therefore
R K d(area) = R K (EG)1/2 du dv
77
Thus
+ 2
= 2 ,
78
The global Gauss-Bonnet Theorem.
80
Proof of the global Gauss-Bonnet Theorem.
81
To fix notation, say that our triangulation of R has
F faces .
We note that
82
The local Gauss-Bonnet Theorem for each triangle T in R
can be written as
83
The integrals of the Gaussian curvature K over the triangles
add up to the integral of K over all of R .
We will get
84
When we add up the interior angles, we will get 2 at
each interior vertex, and some unknown angle between
0 and 2 at each boundary vertex. Because two edges
of a triangle can be tangent at a vertex, we can actually
get interior angle sums of 0 and 2 at the boundary
vertices.
Thus
85
Inserting this value, we so far have the equation
= 2 Vint + Vbdry 3 F + 2 F .
86
Our job is to recognize the right hand side of this equation,
2 Vint + Vbdry 3 F + 2 F ,
(R) = V E + F .
Recall that
87
Hence
2 Vint + Vbdry 3 F + 2 F
= 2 V 2 E + 2 F = 2 (R) .
88
We have shown that
= 2 V 2 E + 2 F
= 2 (R) ,
89
Problem 9. Let S R3 be a smooth closed surface
(automatically orientable) which is not homeomorphic
to S2 . Show that there are points on S where the
Gaussian curvature is positive, zero and negative.
S K d(area) = 0 .
90
Problem 11. Let S R3 be a smooth surface homeomor-
phic to S2 . Suppose S is a simple closed geodesic,
and let A and B be the two regions on S which have
as boundary. Let N: S S2 be the Gauss map. Prove
that N(A) and N(B) have the same area on S2 .
91
Problem 13. Let S R3 be a surface homeomorphic to a
cylinder and with Gaussian curvature K < 0 . Show that
S has at most one simple closed geodesic.
92