.

SYALLABUS FOR IT COURSE APT 112

Unit-I
1. LASERS: Introduction; Absorption and Emission, Properties of laser
beam- coherence and degree of coherence,Einsteins coefficients &
equations, Meta-stable states, Population inversion, Resonance cavity,
Pumping (three and four level laser schemes), He-Ne laser, Semiconductor
lasers, YAG laser, Applications in engineering drilling, welding,
micromachining; in CD writer devices and printers; in medicine as surgical
tool; in holography- recording, reconstruction and applications.
( 8 Hours)

2. FIBRE OPTICS:

Review of optics, Principle of optical fibre communication, Graded Index

Fibre, Modes of propagation in optical fibres, Single Mode Step Index
Optical Fibre, Multimode Step Index Optical Fibre, Acceptance Angle&
acceptance cone, Numerical Aperture, V-number, Dispersion in Optical
Fibre; Intermodal and intramodal dispersion, Losses in optical fibre
(attenuation and dispersion), Applications of optical fibre- fibre optic
communication, fibre optic sensors.
( 7 Hours)

Unit-II

3. SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS: Basics of Semiconductor-Physics, Charged

particles, Field intensity, Potential energy barrier, Crystal Structure,
Formation of energy bands in metals, semiconductors & insulators, Direct &
Indirect Band Gap Materials, Fermi-Dirac Function, Position of Fermi level
in intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, Conductivity, Mobility, Current
density (drift & diffusion) in semiconductors (n-type and p-type), Generation
and recombination of charges, Continuity equation.

( 11 Hours)
 4. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND APPLICATIONS:

Fermi Level diagram for p-n junction (unbiased, forward bias, reverse bias),
formation of p-n junction diode, Zener-diode, Hall effect and Hall voltage
(Complete derivation), Applications of semiconductor devices.

(4 Hours)

Unit-III
5. MAGNETIC & OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Classification of magnetic materials, Quantum numbers, Magnetic moment,

Classical theory of diamagnetism (Langevin theory), Theory of
Paramagnetism, Ferromagnetism (Weiss theory), Antiferromagnetic
magnetic materials, Ferrites, Hard soft magnetic materials, Classification of
optical materials, Absorption in metals, insulators, and semiconductors,
LED, Organic LED.
(8 Hours)
6. NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY:

Basic concept of nano-science and nanotechnology, Quantum wire, Quantum

well, Quantum dot, Fullerenes, Graphenes, Carbon nano-tubes, Methods to
synthesize nano-materials (Ball milling, Sol-gel), and potential uses of
nanomaterials in electronics, robotics, computers, sensors, sports equipment,
mobile electronics devices, vehicles and transportations.

( 7 Hours)
Text Books:

1. Beiser A., Ghatak A, Garg S.C., Applied Physics, Edition 1st, (2013), Tata
McGraw-Hill, Noida.
2. Beiser A., Concepts of Modern Physics, Edition 6th, (2003),Tata
McGraw-Hill, Noida.
3. Bhattacharya D. K., Tandon Poonam, Engineering Physics., Edition
1st,(2015), Oxford.
4. Sze S.M., K. Ng Kwok., Physics of Semiconductor Devices, Edition 3rd ,
 (2011), Wiley India.
5. Kasap S.O.,Principles of Electronic and materials and devices,Edition 1st,
(2007), Tata McGraw-Hill, Noida.
6. Laud B.B., Laser and Non -Linear Optics, Edition 1st, (1991), Wiley Eastern
Ltd.

References:

1. Mani H.S. and Mehta G.K., Introduction to Modern Physics, Edition1st,

(1990), East-West Press, New Delhi.
2. Garcia N., Damask A., Physics for computer science students,Edition1st,
(1991), Springer-Verlag, New York.
3. Sharma Ashok.,Solid state Physics and electronics,Vol-3(2000),Modern
Publication.
4. http://klaihem.tripod.com/The%20concept%20of%20Compton%20Camera.
htm.
5. file:///C:/Users/Dell/Desktop/Solid_state_electronic_band_structure.svg
6. https://sites.google.com/site/joshshalleffectcache/
7. http://www.brainkart.com/article/PN-Junction-diode--Forward-and-Reverse-
bias-characteristics_2980/

Unit I
DEFINITIONS

LASER : LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION

POPULATION INVERSION: A condition of matter in which more electrons are in a
high energy state than in a lower energy state, as is required for the operation of a laser.

e-hv/kT
where,T is the thermodynamic temperature of the group of atoms, and k is Boltzmann's
constant.
ABSORPTION: The process of absorbing energy from photons is called absorption of
radiation.
 SPONTANEOUS EMISSION
The process by which excited electrons emit photons while falling to the ground level
or lower energy level is called spontaneous emission.
 STIMULATED EMISSION
The process by which electrons in the excited state are stimulated to emit photons while
falling to the ground state or lower energy state is called stimulated emission.

EINSTEIN COEFFICIENTS
Einstein coefficients are mathematical quantities which are a measure of the probability of
absorption or emission of light by an atom or molecule

The Einstein A coefficient is related to the rate of spontaneous emission of light and the
Einstein B coefficients are related to the absorption and stimulated emission of light

Relation between Einsteins coefficients

A21/B21=8hv3/c3

Einstein proved thermodynamically,that the probability of stimulated absorption is equal to

the probability of stimulated emission.

B12=B21

UNITS OF EINSTEIN COEFFICIENTS

A21= s-1
 B12 = B21 = J-1 m3 s-1

Characteristics of Laser Beam:

A laser beam has the following important characteristics:

1. Directionality: An ordinary source of light emits light waves in all the directions and is
highly divergent. But the divergence or angular spread of a laser is very small.

2. Monochromaticity: It means that all the laser rays have same wavelength and frequency
when they are emitted from the same source.

3. Brightness: A laser beam has brightness many times in magnitude greater than that of
conventional sources due to high directional property of laser beam.

4. Coherence:Two or more light waves are said to be coherent if they bear a constant phase
relation among themselves. Coherence can be classified into two ways:

a) Temporal coherence

b) Spatial coherence.

Components of LASER
Every LASER consists of three basic components. These are :

1. Lasing material or active medium.

2. External energy source.
3. Optical resonator.
 THREE LEVEL LASER

Example : RUBY LASER is three level laser.

FOUR LEVEL LASER

Example: Helium-Neon laser is four level laser system

RUBY LASER
A ruby laser is a solid-state laser that uses a synthetic ruby crystal as its gain medium

CONSTRUCTION

WORKING

He-Ne Laser
A heliumneon laser , is a type of gas laser whose gain medium consists of a mixture of 85%
helium and 15% neon inside of a small bore capillary tube, usually excited by a DC electrical
discharge. The best-known and most widely used He Ne laser operates at a wavelength of 632.8
nm, in the red part of the visible spectrum
Active centre: Ne

CONSTRUCTION

WORKING
 Nd YAG LASER
Nd : YAG is a crystal that is used as a lasing medium for solid-state lasers. The dopant, triply
ionized neodymium, Nd , typically replaces a small fraction of the yttrium ions in the host
crystal structure of the yttrium aluminium garnet ,

Nd:YAG (neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet; Nd:Y3Al5O12)

Nd3+ ions act as active medium or active centers. YAG is just the host.

CONSTRUCTION

WORKING
 HOLOGRAPHY
Holography is a photographic technique that records the light scattered from an object, and then
presents it in a way that appears three-dimensional.

1. Recording of hologram

2. Reconstruction ofimage
 FIBRE OPTICS

An optical fibre is a cylindrical wave guide made of transparent dielectric which guides light
waves along its length by TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION .It is thin as humar hair app.
0.003 inch.

COMPONENTS OF FIBRE:

1. CORE
2. CLADDING
3. BUFFER JACKET
 PRINCIPLE OF FIBRE OPTICS:
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

When light is incident upon a medium of lesser index of refraction, the ray is bent away fromthe
normal, so the exit angle is greater than the incident angle. Such reflection is commonly
called"internal reflection". The exit angle will then approach 90 for some critical incident
angle c, and forincident angles greater than the critical angle there will be total internal
reflection.
Refractive index of core material n1 must be greater than that of cladding n2
CRITICAL ANGLE :
At a specific value of incidence angle the angle of refraction is 90. This incidence angle is
known as critical angle
Sinc = n2/n1

ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE:

It is the maximum angle of a ray (against the fiber axis) hitting the fiber core which allows the
incident light to be guided by the core.
Numerical aperture is thus considered as a light gathering capacity of an optical fibre.
Numerical Aperture is defined as the Sine of half of the angle of fibres light acceptance cone.
i.e.
NA= Sin a
Where a, is called acceptance cone angle.
 MODES OF PROPAGATION:

There are 2 types of propagation mode in fiber optics cable which are multi-mode and
single-mode.

Single-mode Step Index:

The diameter of the core is fairly small relative to the cladding. Typically, the cladding is ten
times thicker than the core. Comparing the output pulse and the input pulse, note that there is
little attenuation and time dispersion.
Single mode propagation exists only above a certain specific wavelength called the cutoff
wavelength. Single-mode fiber optic cable is fabricated from glass. Because of the thickness of
the core, plastic cannot be used to fabricate single-mode fiber optic cable.

Multi-mode Step Index:

The diameter of the core is fairly large relative to the cladding. Note that the output pulse is
significantly attenuated relative to the input pulse. It also suffers significant time dispersion.

Multi-mode Graded Index

here is no sharp discontinuity in the indices of refraction between core and cladding. The core
here is much larger than in the single-mode step index.

ATTENUATION

Attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical output power to the input power in the fibre of
length L
 in dB/km
Where Pi =Input Power
Po = Outout Power

In optical fibers, attenuation is the rate at which the signal light decreases in intensity. For
this reason, glass fiber (which has a low attenuation) is used for long-distance fiber optic
cables; plastic fiber has a higher attenuation and, hence, shorter range.

Two types:

1. INTRINSIC ATTENUATION : It is caused by impurities present in glass .

During manufacturing there is no way to eliminate all impurities.

a) Material Absorption

b) Rayleigh Scattering

2. EXTRINSIC ATTENUATION : Due to Macrobending or Microbending, both

cause reduction of optical power .Due to bend strain is placed on fibre along
region that is bent.

a) Macrobend
b) Microbend

Distortion : Change in shape of signal

Two types:
a) INTERMODAL DISPERSION: Pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion
results from the propagation delay differences between modes within a multimode fiber
b) INTRAMODAL DISPERSION: It is the pulse spreading that occurs within a single
mode.
Material Dispersion: Also known as spectral dispersion or chromatic dispersion. Results
because of variation due to Refractive Index of core as a function of wavelength,
because of which pulse spreading occurs even when different wavelengths follow the
same path.
 Waveguide Dispersion: Whenever any optical signal is passed through the optical fiber,
practically 80% of optical power is confined to core & rest 20% optical power into
cladding.

V Number :
It is proportional to the optical frequency. It is relevant for various essential properties
of a fiber: For V values below 2.405, a fiber supports only one mode per polarization direction
( single-mode fibers). Multimode fibers can have much higher V numbers.

where a is the core radius, is the wavelength in vacuum, n1 is the maximum refractive index
of the core, n2 is the refractive index of the homogeneous cladding.

Unit II
5. Important Definitions
SemiconductorsThese are the solid substances which have conductivity
between that of an insulator and that of most metals, either due to the
addition of an impurity or because of temperature effects.
Electric field intensity-The magnitude of an electric field at a point in the
field is equal to the force that would be exerted on a small unit charge placed
 at the point. It is also called electric field strength.
Potential energy barrier- The potential energy barrier in a region,
is a field of force where the force exerted on a particle is such as to oppose th
e passage of theparticle through the region. Also known as
Barrier or potential hill.
Crystal structure-In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the
ordered arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material.
Unit cellIt is the smallest group of atoms which has the overall symmetry of
a crystal, and from which the entire lattice can be built up by repetition in
three dimensions.
Primitive and non-primitive cells-Primitive unit cells contain only one lattice
point, which is made up from the lattice points at each of the
corners. Non-primitive unit cells contain additional lattice points, either on a
face of the unit cell or within the unit cell, and so have more than one lattice
point per unit cell.
Bravais lattices-In geometry and crystallography, a Bravais lattice, studied by
Auguste Bravais (1850), is an infinite array of discrete points in three
dimensional space generated by a set of discrete translation operations.
Miller indices It is the set of three numbers or letters used to indicate the
position of a face or internal plane of a crystal and determined on the basis of
the reciprocal of the intercept of the face or plane on the crystallographic
axes.
P-type and N-type semiconductors P-type semiconductors are the extrinsic
semiconductors having doping of elements of third group of periodic table,
whereas N-type semiconductors are the extrinsic semiconductors having
doping of elements of fifth group of periodic table.
Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors - The minimal-energy state in
the conduction band and the maximal-energy state in the valence band, each
characterized by a certain crystal momentum (k-vector) in the Brillouin zone,
if the k-vectors are the same, it is called a "direct gap". If they are different, it
is called an "indirect gap".
Fermi-Dirac distribution function Fermi Dirac distribution function is the
probability of finding the charge carrier at any energy level.FermiDirac
statistics describes a distribution of particles over energy states in systems
consisting of many identical particles that obey the Pauli exclusion principle.
Fermi level - "Fermi level" is the term used to describe the top of the
collection of electron energy levels at absolute zero temperature. This
concept comes from Fermi-Dirac statistics. Electrons are fermions and by the
 Pauli-exclusion principle cannot exist in identical energy states. At zero
Kelvin, Fermi level is the energy level, bellow which all energy states are
occupied and above which all energy states are unoccupied.
Drift velocity- It can be understood by imagining the random motion of free
electrons in a conductor. The free electrons in a conductor move with random
velocities and in random directions. When an electric field is applied across
the conductor the randomly moving electrons are subjected to electrical
forces along the direction of the field.
Electrical conductivity- It is the measure of a material's ability to allow the
transport of an electric charge. Its SI is the siemens per meter, (A2s3m3kg1)
(named after Werner von Siemens) or, more simply, Sm1. It is the ratio of the
current density to the electric field strength.
Mobility - In solid-state physics, the electron mobility characterizes how
quickly an electron can move through a metal or semiconductor, when pulled
by an electric field. When an electric field E is applied across a piece of
material, the electrons respond by moving with an average velocity called
the drift velocity, {\displaystyle \,v_{d}}then the electron mobility is
defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field.
Current density- {\displaystyle \,v_{d}=\mu E}The current density vector is
defined as a vector whose magnitude is the electric current per
cross-sectional area at a given point in space, its direction being that of the
motion of the charges at this point.
6. Fundamentals/ Theorems -
Basic crystal structures-
Cubic system
Orthorhombic system-It is also called rhombic system.
Tetragonal system
Monoclinic system
Rhombohedral system
Triclinic system
Hexagonal system
Doping in semiconductors-The modern understanding of the properties of a
semiconductor relies on quantum physics to explain the movement of charge
carriers in a crystal lattice. Doping greatly increases the number of charge
carriers within the crystal. When a doped semiconductor contains mostly free
holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains mostly free electrons it is
known as "n-type". The semiconductor materials used in electronic devices
 are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration and regions
of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have many p-
and n-type regions; the pn junctions between these regions are responsible
for the useful electronic behavior.Although some pure elements and many
compounds display semiconductor properties, silicon, germanium, and
compounds of gallium are the most widely used in electronic devices.
Elements near the so-called "metalloid staircase", where the metalloids are
located on the periodic table, are usually used as semiconductors.
Energy band theory of semiconductors - It led to understanding of the nature
and explained the important properties of metals, semiconductors and
insulators. The width of the forbidden band (the energygap between the
valence and conduction bands) is the key variable in the band theory; it
defines the electrical and optical properties of the material.

Position of Fermi level in p-type and n-type semiconductors- In p-type

semiconductors ,Fermi level lies near balance band and in n-type ,it lies near
conduction band.

Variation of Distribution function with energy-

 P-N junction diode formation- The PN junction of a diode may be one of
three types: a grown junction, an alloyed junction, or a diffused junction.
Each involves a different construction technique. In a grown junction method
(the earliest technique used), intrinsic semiconductor material and P-type
impurities are placed in a quartz container and heated until they melt. A
small semiconductor crystal, called a seed, is then lowered into the molten
mixture. The seed crystal is slowly rotated and withdrawn from the molten
mixture slowly enough to allow the molten mixture to cling to the seed. The
molten mixture, clinging to the seed crystal, cools and rehardens, assuming
the same crystalline characteristics as the seed. As the seed crystal is
withdrawn, it is alternately doped with N- and P-type impurities.

Forward and reverse biased p-n junction diode-

Zener diode - Zener diodes are normal p-n junction diodes operating in a
reverse biased condition. Working of the Zener diode is similar to a PN
junction diode in forward biased condition, but the uniqueness lies in the fact
 that it can also conduct when it is connected in reverse bias above
its threshold / breakdown voltage. These are among the basic types of
diodes used frequently, apart from the normal diodes.The I-V Characteristics
Curve of a zener diode, shown below, is the curve which shows the
current-voltage relationship of a zener diode.

Hall effect- The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference

(the Hall voltage) across an electrical conductor, transverse to an electric
current in the conductor and to an applied magnetic field perpendicular to the
current.

7. Important Rules/ Laws/ -

Rules to find Miller indices-
Determine the intercepts of the face along the crystallographic axes, in terms
of unit cell dimensions.
Take the reciprocals.
Clear fractions.
Reduce to lowest terms.
Rule to forward bias a p-n junction diode-Connect positive terminal of
battery to p-type and negative terminal of battery to n-type semiconductor.
 Rule to reverse bias a p-n junction diode- Connect negative terminal of
battery to p-type and positive terminal of battery to n-type semiconductor.
Rules to use Zener as voltage regulator- (a) connect in reverse bias (b) use
Zener diode parallel to load resistance.
8. Important statements
Negative temperature coefficient of resistance for semiconductors means that
their resistivity decreases rapidly with increase in temperature.Their
resistivity varies from 10-5 to 104m.
Semiconductors give high thermoelectric power with signs both positive and
negative relative to a given metal.
Electron and hole mobility are special cases of electrical mobility of charged
particles in a fluid under an applied electric field. When an electric field E is
applied across a piece of material, the electrons respond by moving with an
average velocity.
Conductivity is proportional to the product of mobility and carrier
concentration.
Semiconductor mobility depends on the impurity concentrations (including
donor and acceptor concentrations), defect concentration, temperature, and
electron and hole concentrations. It also depends on the electric field,
particularly at high fields when velocity saturation occurs.
In intrinsic semiconductors the Fermi level lies midway between the
conduction and valance band.
9. Formulae/formulations /recipes
Drift velocity ,v = E ,where is the mobility of charge carriers and E is the
electric field.
Conductivity, = e(nee+nhh) ,where ne =concentration of
electrons,nh=concentration of holes,e mobility of electrons, h= mobility of
holes, e is the charge on electron.
Current density, J = neAv ,where, n= concentration of charge carriers per
unit volume,e= charge on electron,v= velocity of charge carriers, A= area of
cross-section.
Fermi-Dirac distribution function, F(E)=1/e(E-Ef)/kT, where=energy of the given
level,Ef=Fermi energy,k=Boltzmann constant,T=given temperature.
Hall-coefficient,Rh= 1/ne ,where, n= concentration of charge carriers per unit
volume, e is the charge on electron.Also,
Rh= Vht/IB ,where, Vh= Hall voltage,t= thickness of sample,I=current
applied to sample,B= magnetic flux density.

At equilibrium condition, the force downwards due to magnetic field will be

equal to the upward electric force, i.e.

(i)

Here v is drift velocity, which can be expressed by the relation

I = -nevA (ii)

Where n is number of electrons per unit volume and A is the area of cross-

section of the conductor. The area of the cross-section in the sample is

A = td. So from equation (i) and (ii) we get

(iii)

We can take some typical values for copper and silicone to see the order of

magnitude of VH. For copper n=1029m-3 and for Si, n = 1=25 m-3. Hence

the Hall voltage at B = 1T and i=10A and t = 1 mm for copper and Silicone

are, 0.6V and 6 mV respectively. The Hall voltage is much more

measurable in semiconductor than in metal i.e. Hall effect is more effective

in semiconductor.Recalling equation (iii) and expressing in terms of current

density and Hall field we get,

EH/JB = -1/ne

Where EH/JB is called Hall Coefficient (RH). It is negative for free electron

and positive for holes in semiconductors. In some cases, it has been found
 that RH is positive for metal. It also implies that the charge carriers are

positive rather than negative.

Continuity equation- dn/dt = (npo-np)/Tp- 1/e(dJp/dx) where , npo= concentration

of charge carriers generated due to thermal energy in the p-type
semiconductor sample, np= concentration of charge carriers decreased due to
recombination, Tp=average life time of charge carrier in sample,Jp=Current
density of holes. The rate change of the carriers between x and x+dx equals
the difference between the incoming flux and outgoing flux plus the
generation and minus the recombination.

10. Important content beyond syllabus-

Tunnel diodes- Tunnel diode is a highly doped semiconductor device and
is used mainly for low voltage high frequency switching applications. It
works on the principle of Tunneling effect. It is also called as Esaki diode
named after Leo Esaki, who in 1973 received the Nobel Prize in Physics
for discovering the electron tunneling effect used in these diodes.

I-V characteristic curve for Tunnel diode

Point contact diode- A conventional p-n junction diode due to large

capacitance between the two electrodes tends to shunt out the rectifying
action at high frequencies. A point contact diode, on the other hand, is
 widely used in high frequency applications because of its small size and
low junction capacitance.
Liquid crystal display- It is an organic material which flows like a liquid
but has molecular structure with properties of solids. It is superior to LED
because LCD consumes very small power(of the order of microwatts)as
compared to LED(of the order of milliwatts).There are two types of LCDs
namely light scattering type and fields effect type.

11. Other important information-

The number of atoms per unit cell is given by N= Ni+ Nf/2 +Nc/8 where,
Ni=Number of interior atoms , Nf = Number of face centered atoms ,
Nc=Number of corner atoms.
Using Miller indices, the inter-planer spacing(d) for the given crystal can
be found using relation, d= a/(h2+k2+l2)1/2, where a=lattice parameter and
h,k,l are given Miller indices.
Density of electrons in conduction band nc= 2(2me*kT/h2)3/2e(Ef-Ec)/kT
where me*=effective mass of electron and other terms have usual
meaning.
Static resistance of crystal diode= V/Is (eeV/kT-1) where, Is= saturation
current, is a dimensionless parameter and the other terms have usual
meaning.
When p-n junction is reverse biased, V is negative and eeV/kT<<1.
Position of Fermi level at zero Kelvin is given by ,Ef(o)=h2/82m (32n)3/2
where, the terms used have usual meaning.
The units of RH are usually expressed as m3/C, or cm/G, or other
variants. As a result, the Hall effect is very useful as a means to measure
either the carrier density or the magnetic field.
Use of p-n junction diode in transistors-Transistors (devices that enable
current switching) also make use of extrinsic semiconductors. Bipolar
junction transistors (BJT), which amplify current, are one type of
transistor. The most common BJTs are NPN and PNP type. NPN
transistors have two layers of n-type semiconductors sandwiching a
p-type semiconductor. PNP transistors have two layers of p-type
semiconductors sandwiching an n-type semiconductor. Field-effect
 transistors (FET) are another type of transistor which amplify current
implementing extrinsic semiconductors. As opposed to BJTs, they are
called uni-polar because they involve single carrier type operation
either N-channel or P-channel.

UNIT-III

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

DIAMAGNETISM
In a system, if the orbital and spin angular momentum associated with atoms or ions , in the
absence of magnetic field, cancel in pairs so that J=0, which gives resultant magnetic dipole
moment of atom or molecule as zero. This is characteristic of diamagnetism .When an atom is
subjected to a magnetic field , the changing magnetic flux induces currents(via the electron
orbits), which according to Lenzs Law, oppose the change in flux. The induced currents
persists, and have magnetic moment which is opposite in sign to the applied magnetic field
intensity . This is called diamagnetic moment. The associated susceptibility is negative and this
property is known as diamagnetism.

Some of the important characteristics of diamagnetic substances are as follows:

1) When subjected to strong uniform magnetic field , the magnetism induced is in a
direction opposite to that of the external field .
2) In a non-uniform field, they have tendency to move from stronger to weaker part of the
field.
3) The diamagnetic substances are characterized by negative susceptibility.
4) The bar of a diamagnetic substance stays at right angles when suspended between the
pole pieces of a strong magnet.

PARAMAGNETISM
Some atoms and ions with unpaired electrons(in the case if the number of electrons is odd
and also for some systems with even number of electrons) have permanent magnetic
moment. In the absence of the magnetic field, these moments usually point in random
directions and thus produce no net magnetization. But in the presence of a magnetic field,
these moments tend to line up in the direction of the field and produce a net , macroscopic
magnetic moment and thus the magnetization.
As the direction of magnetization is parallel to the applied field , thus the external field
strength increases and the susceptibility is greater than zero. This gives rise to the
phenomenon called paramagnetism.

Some of the other characteristics of paramagnetic material are as follows:

1) The relative permeability is slightly greater than unity and susceptibility is positive
small of the order of 10-4.
2) When a bar of a paramagnetic material is suspended between the pole pieces of a
magnet, it aligns parallel to the lines of force.
3) A paramagnetic liquid shows a rise in U-tube when placed between pole pieces of a
strong magnet.
4) In a non-uniform magnetic field, the paramagnetic substance tends to move from
weaker part to stronger part of the field.
5) The susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is inversely proportional to absolute
temperature(T). This is called curie law.

FERROMAGNETISM
Ferromagnetism is characterized due to spontaneous magnetic moment a magnetic
moment even in the absence of applied field. The atoms or molecules of ferromagnetic
materials have a net intrinsic magnetic dipole moment which is due to the spin of the
electrons. The interaction between the neighboring atomic magnetic dipoles is very
strong and is called spin exchange interaction. The interaction is present even in the
absence of an external field.

FERROMAGNETICS ARE DISTINGUISHED DUE TO THEIR FOLLOWING

PROPERTIES:
1) They acquire a relatively high magnetization in weak fields .
2) They do not have linear proportionality between the magnetization and the field
strength. This means their susceptibility is not constant but varies with field.
3) Their magnetization is not a unique function of the field strength but depends on the
field to which they have been subjected previously.
 4) Their magnetic moment, intensity of magnetization and susceptibility are positive
and large.
5) They can exist in a permanently magnetized state even when there is no external
field spontaneous magnetization.
6) They lose their special characteristics above a certain critical temperature i.e. the
ferromagnetic susceptibility decreases with rise in temperature. Above a certain
temperature , called Curie temperature , ferromagnetic substances change to
paramagnetics.

MAGNETIC INTENSITY
The intensity of the magnetic field at any point in a magnetic field is the force
experienced by a unit pole at that point. It is represented by H.
Unit: Weber/m2
H=B/o where is o the permeability of free space

MAGNETIZATION(M)
When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field , the magnetic dipoles
experience a torque and tend to align in the direction of magnetic field. This produces a
net magnetic dipole moment. The total magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of the
material is called magnetization.
M= units: Weber/m2

MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY ()
Magnetic permeability is defined as the ratio of the magnetic flux density to the
intensity of magnetic field.
= unit: Weber/ampere-m

MAGNETIC SUSCEPTBILITY (X)

The magnetization is directly proportional to magnetic field intensity.

MH

M=XH
X=
X is a constant of proportionality known as susceptibility.
 Total magnetic field at any point is given by :
B= o(H+M)
B= o(H+XH)
B= oH(1+X)
Also, B= H
= o(1+X)
=1+X
r=1+X
If X=0 then it means no magnetization .
If X is positive it means magnetization in the direction of the applied magnetic field.
If X is negative it means magnetization in the opposite direction of applied magnetic field.
this is curie law .
Quantum no and magnetic moment
1. Principal quantum no.:- The principal quantum no. represents the relative overall
energy of each orbital and the energy of each orbital increases. In quantum theory of the
hydrogen atom the electron in the orbital can only have energies specified by En =E1/ n2.
The quantization of electron energy in the hydrogen atom is described by principal
quantum no. n.
2. Orbital quantum no.:- (quantization of angular momentum) The orbital magnetic
moment of an electron arises due to its orbital motion about the nucleus. Suppose
electron revolves around the nucleus in a circular orbit of radius r. If v is the velocity of
electron and T is the time period of T.
T=
The current I due to circular motion
I= =
Magnetic moment of the electron corresponds to this orbital motion
m= IA
= *r2
=

Where mvr= L
m=
negative sign shows that magnetic dipole moment s in opposite direction to angular
momentum.
L is given by
L=
l is orbital quantum no. l= 0,1,2.(n-1)
m =
 e/2m= B= bohr magneton
B= 9.3 *10-24 Am2
spin quantum no.:- (space quantization) The magnetic moment arises from the spn
motion of the electron. In addition to orbital angular moment L, it has an intrinsic spin
angular momentum S which can be written as
S=
Magnetic moment corresponds to this spin motion
s =-
s is spin quantum no. has value and -1/2
when electron spin magnetic system is placed in an external magnetic field the spin magnetic
moment along the field can take two values parallel and antiparallel.
LANGEVIN THEORY OF DIAMAGNETISM
(a) Diamagnetic moment in an atom
1) Magnetic moment of an electron
Consider an electron in an atom revolving counter clockwise in a circular orbit of
radius r in xy plane. Let e and m be the charge and mass of the electron. Suppose v is the
speed of the electron. Then its magnetic moment is
m=-

let be the angular speed of the electron. Then

v=r
m =-
The direction of this magnetic moment is along negative z-axis.
Since the electron is rotating in the circular orbit, it requires a centripetal force. This force is
provided by the Coulomb force between the nucleus and electron. The centripetal force acting
on the electron is
Fc = (mv2)/r
Fc = mr2
2) Effect of magnetic field on magnetic moment
Suppose now an external magnetic field B is applied to the electron in the z-direction.
The electron will experience a magnetic force evB. According to the vector cross product rule
this force will act along the direction of coulomb force between electron and nucleus. The
magnitude of magnetic force acting on the electron is
Fm=evBsin
Since v and B are perpendicular , therefore =. Thus
Fm=evB=erB
 The net force acting on the electron is
F=Fc+Fm=mr2+erB
The net force on the electron has increased due to magnetic field. As a result of it the
electron will revolve faster in its orbit. Suppose its new angular speed is +. The new
magnetic moment of electron can be obtained by changing to (+). Thus,
m =-

3) Change in magnetic moment of the electron

The change in the magnetic moment of the electron due to magnetic field is
m= m m
m=-

The centripetal force acting on the electron in presence of magnetic field is

F=mr(+)2
Mr2+erB=mr2+mr2+2mrv
Since is small, we can neglect the term containing 2. Thus
erB=2mr
=
Substitute this value of . Thus,

m=- B

Since B=oH we may write

m=-

The negative sign shows that the change in magnetic moment takes place in a direction
opposite to H. We can express this by saying that the electron develops an induced magnetic
moment m in a direction opposite to the external magnetic field. This result also holds good
for an electron revolving clockwise.
4) Magnetic moment induced in the atom
Suppose now that the atom has Z electrons and the orbits of all electrons lie in the same
plane. Then the total magnetic moment induced in the atom is
a=Zm

a=-

This equation shows that an atom in the presence of magnetic field acquires a magnetic
moment opposite to the magnetic field. This is called diamagnetic effect in an atom. This
effect occurs in all atoms.
(b) Diamagnetic effect in a bulk sample
Suppose a sample of diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field H. In the absence of
the Magnetic field, the magnetic moment of each diamagnetic atom is zero. When we apply
a magnetic field, each atom will develop an induced magnetic moment opposite to the
applied magnetic field. The induced magnetic moment per atom is
a=-

Suppose there are N atoms per unit volume of the sample. Then the magnetization M
induced in the sample is
M=Na=-

This equation shows that the diamagnetic sample acquires magnetization in a direction
opposite to the magnetic field. The above equation may b written as
M=H
Where
=-
is the magnetic susceptibility for diamagnetic substances
(c) Conclusion
From the above discussion we conclude
1) The magnetization M induced in the diamagnetic material is proportional to H.
2) The diamagnetic substance acquires a magnetization M in a direction opposite to H.
3) The magnetic susceptibility of diamagnetic substance is always negative and almost
independent of temperature.
4) Diamagnetism arises due to the orbital motion of electrons. Therefore it is present in all
materials. The diamagnetism effect is however quite small.
Theory of paramagnetism
Consider paramagnetic gas containing N atoms per unit volume each havng magnetic
moment m with an applied magnetic field B.
E= -m . B = mB cos
Where is the angle between m and B.
The probability that a magnetic dipoles is inclinced at an angle to the field direction
in thermal equilibrium is given by Maxwell boltzman distribution
F(E)= A exp(-E/KT)
F(E)= A exp(mBcos/KT)

5) Where Ais normalization constant. The total no of magnetic dipoles n, inclined at an

angle to the field B
n = no exp(mBcos/KT)
 the average magnetic moment
<> =
Put x= B/KT and s=cos so that ds=-sind
M=N<>=NmL(x)

L(x)= x/3= mB/2KT

So magnetization
M=N2B/3KT

M= N2BoH/3KT

= M/H= N2o/3KT

variation of M with H and variation of with temperture

FERROMAGNETISM
a) Ferromagnetic substances
The diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials get magnetized only when
subjected to an external magnetic field. As soon as the external magnetic field is
removed, these substances become unmagnetised. There exists substances in which
magnetic moments have strong tendency to align themselves without any external
magnetic field. These substances possess magnetization even in the absence of an
applied magnetic field. Such substances are known as ferromagnetic substances or
ferromagnets.
b) Domain theory of ferromagnetism
Consider a sample of ferromagnetic material. Each atom of the ferromagnetic
material has a permanent magnetic dipole moment. There exist regions in
ferromagnetic material in each of which the individual magnetic moments are
 aligned parallel to one another. These regions are called domains. (for simplicity
only four domains are shown). The size of these domains vary from sample to
sample. The volume of the domain usually lies between 10-2 cm3 to 10-6 cm3. A
single domain contains about 1016 or more atomic dipoles. In a given domain the
alignment of magnetic moments is the same. But it is different in different
domains. The perfect alignment of magnetic moments in any domain is due to
quantum mechanical force called exchange coupling. In normal unmagnetised
state these domains are randomly oriented and the magnetic moments of
different domains cancel. Therefore a large sample of a ferromagnetic substance
does not show any magnetism.

c) Effect of external magnetic field on magnetization in ferromagnetic substances

When an external magnetic field B is applied B is applied to ferromagnetic
sample. Those domains which are aligned in field direction begin to grow in size
at expense of other domains. So the walls of domains move across the sample.
Moreover domains may orient in favour of applied field. As a result more
magnetic moments get aligned in the direction of magnetic field. Therefore the
sample of ferromagnetic material gets strongly magnetized. When the applied
magnetc field is reduced to zero, the domains do not exactly return to their
original alignment. So the material is left magnetized even in the absence of
magnetic field.

Ferromagnetic domain
.
Antiferromagnetic magnetic materials:- These are materials in which electron spins
associated with magnetic atoms at particular crystallographic sites are ordered yet
oriented with respect to each other in such a manner that their net magnetization is equal
to zero. This is the case below a particular temperature, called as Nel temperature
(TN) above which the material behaves as a paramagnet.

Examples include metallic manganese, chromium, various transition metal oxides such
as manganese oxide (MnO), forms of iron oxide (Fe2O3), multiferroic perovskites like
bismuth ferrite (BiFeO3). For example in MnO, since O is not a magnetic ion, the
antiparallel spin arrangement of Mn2+, the magnetic ion, in two sites gives rise to zero
magnetization. Below is the crystal structure of MnO, drawn on (100) plane.

Antiferromagnetic

Ferrites:- The magnetic structure is composed of two magnetic sublattices (called A and
B). In ferrimagnets, the magnetic moments of the A and B sublattices are not equal and
result in a net magnetic moment. Ferrimagnetism is therefore similar to ferromagnetism.
It exhibits all the hallmarks of ferromagnetic behavior- spontaneous magnetization,
Curie temperatures, hysteresis, and remanence. However, ferro- and ferrimagnets have
very different magnetic ordering.

Ferrites
Hard and soft magnetic materials:- Based on their hysteresis characteristics ferro and
ferrimagnetic materials can be classified as hard and soft magnets. Soft magnets have
a narrow hysteresis curve and high initial permeability and hence easy to magnetize and
demagnetize. It is just opposite for the Hard magnets.

Soft and hard material

 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY:

Introduction:- Nanoscience is the study of phenomena on a nanometer scale. Atoms are a

few tenths of a nanometer in diameter and molecules are typically a few nanometers in size.
The smallest structures humans have made have dimensions of a few nanometers and the
smallest structures we will ever make will have the dimensions of a few nanometers. This is
because as soon as a few atoms are placed next to each other, the resulting structure is a few
nanometers in size. The smallest transistors, memory elements, light sources, motors,
sensors, lasers, and pumps are all just a few nanometers in size.
Besides the technological relevance of nanoscience (or perhaps because of the technological
relevance) there is an enormous hype associated with it. Fantastic claims have been made
about faster computers, cheap production of goods, and medical breakthroughs.
Nanotechnology is expected to appear in products such as tennis rackets, self-cleaning cars,
paint, food, cosmetics, and thermal underwear.

Methods of synthesis:-
Ball milling method:-
As the name suggests, the ball milling method consists of balls and a mill
chamber. Therefore over all a ball mill contains a stainless steel container and many small iron,
hardened steel, silicon carbide, or tungsten carbide balls are made to rotate inside a mill (drum).
The powder of a material is taken inside the steel container. This powder will be made into
nanosize using the ball milling technique. A magnet is placed outside the container to provide
the pulling force to the material and this magnetic force increases the milling energy when
milling container or chamber rotates the metal balls. The ball to material mass ratio is normally
maintained at 2 ratio1. Ball milling is a mechanical process and thus all the structural and
chemical changes are produced by mechanical energy.
 Balling milling methods

Sol gel method:- sol gel process initially a stable colloidal solution called sol is formed. The
sol is a liquid suspension of solid particles ranging in size from 1 nm to 1 micron. It can be
obtained by hydrolysis and partial condensation of precursors such as an inorganic salt or a
metal alkoxide. The further condensation of sol particles into a three dimensional network
produces a gel material. The gel is a diphasic material in which the solids encapsulate the
solvent. The molecular weight of the oxide species produced continuously increases. The
materials are referred to aqua sol or aqua gels when water is used as a solvent and aquosol or
alcogel when alcohol is used.

The encapsulated liquid can be removed from a gel by either evaporative drying or with
supercritical drying /extraction. The resulting solid products are known as xerogel and aerogel
respectively. When gels are dried by evaporation, the dried product is called xerogel. When the
gels are dried by supercritical drying, the dried gel is called aerogels. The aerogel retains high
porosity and has very high pore volume.

General scheme of preparation by solgel method

Quantum well:- If one dimension of the material is reduced to nano range while the other two
dimensions remain large, then the material or structure is called quantum well. Quantum well is
also called nanolayers.

Quantum wire:- If the two dimension of the material are reduced to nano range while the third
dimension remains large, then the material or structure is called quantum wire. Quantum well is
also called nanolayers.
Quantum wires are light weight, high electrical conductivity, small diameter, low chemical
reactivity and high tensile strength.

Quantum dot:- If all the three dimensions of a material are reduced to nano range, then the
nanomaterial or the structure is called the quantum dot. A quantum dot is a zero
dimensional quantum confinement, therefore there are no free moving carriers in quantum dots.
It may contain thousands of atoms, therefore it contain a number of allowed states that are
separate from one another and can be counted. Therefore the energy level of a quantum dot in
nanotechnology is intermediate to a single atom and a solid and it contains discrete energy
levels.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) Bulk materials (b) quantum well (c) quantum wire (d) quantum dot
Fullerens:- The discovery of the existence of a soccer ball like molecule containing 60 carbon
atoms was a some what by chance results of research on the nature of matter in outer space
involving studies of light transmission through intersteller dust, the small particles of matter
that fill the regions of outer space between stars and galaxies.

Similar to diamonds, fullerenes contain a carbon-only molecular structure (or crystalline

structure). Other molecules containing carbon atoms, such as proteins and sugars, are c
Fullerenes can be viewed as fully closed graphene sheets. The guiding principle is that each
carbon atom is connected to three neighbors, and the bond angles must remain close to 120.
The perfect honeycomb lattice satisfies this requirement, as the building blocks are ideal
hexagons connected to not just other carbon atoms but to hydrogens, oxygens, sulfurs, and
nitrogens.
 Fullerene molecule

Carbon nanotubes:- carbon nanotubes are long and thin cyclinders made up from a sheet of
graphite rolled into a tube with bonds at end of sheet and these bonds close the tube. Their
diameter is of order 1-3 nanomtre but have length of micromter.

Carbon nanotubes

Graphenes:- Graphene is an atomic-scale honeycomb lattice made of carbon atoms. Graphene is

undoubtedly emerging as one of the most promising nanomaterials because of its unique
combination of superb properties, which opens a way for its exploitation in a wide spectrum of
applications ranging from electronics to optics, sensors, and biodevices.

Carbon comes in many different forms, from the graphite found in pencils to the world's most
expensive diamonds. In 1980, we knew of only three basic forms of carbon, namely diamond,
graphite, and amorphous carbon. Then, fullerenes and carbon nanotubes were discovered and, in
2004, graphene joined the club. Graphene is an atomic-scale honeycomb lattice made of carbon
atoms.
Existing forms of carbon basically consist of sheets of graphene, either bonded on top of each other
to form a solid material like the graphite in your pencil, or rolled up into carbon nanotubes (think
of a single-walled carbon nanotube as a graphene cylinder) or folded into fullerenes.
 Graphenes sheet

Applications

Nanoscale additives to or surface treatments of fabrics can provide lightweight ballistic

energy deflection in personal body armor, or can help them resist wrinkling, staining, and
bacterial growth.

Clear nanoscale films on eyeglasses, computer and camera displays, windows, and other
surfaces can make them water- and residue-repellent, antireflective, self-cleaning, resistant
to ultraviolet or infrared light, antifog, antimicrobial, scratch-resistant, or electrically
conductive.

Nanoscale materials are beginning to enable washable, durable smart fabrics equipped
with flexible nanoscale sensors and electronics with capabilities for health monitoring, solar
energy capture, and energy harvesting through movement.

Lightweighting of cars, trucks, airplanes, boats, and space craft could lead to significant fuel
savings. Nanoscale additives in polymer composite materials are being used in baseball
bats, tennis rackets, bicycles, motorcycle helmets, automobile parts, luggage, and power
tool housings, making them lightweight, stiff, durable, and resilient. Carbon nanotube sheets
are now being produced for use in next-generation air vehicles. For example, the
combination of light weight and conductivity makes them ideal for applications such as
electromagnetic shielding and thermal management.

The science of nanorobotics plays a vital role in the development of robots, whose structure
is built by using nanoscale components and objects. The nature of the components being in
the nano scale allows the researchers for the engineering of the mimic of human beings. The
construction of the various complex parts, which constitute the robots have been possible
due to nanorobotics. Nanobots, nanites, nanoids or nanomites are some of the hypothetical
devices created with the knowledge of nanorobotics.

Nanoelectronics refer to the use of nanotechnology in electronic components. The term

covers a diverse set of devices and materials, with the common characteristic that they are
so small that inter-atomic interactions and quantum mechanical properties need to be
studied extensively. Some of these candidates include: hybrid
molecular/semiconductor electronics, one-dimensional nanotubes/nanowires (e.g. Silicon
nanowires or Carbon nanotubes) or advanced molecular electronics.
Recent silicon CMOS technology generations, such as the 22 nanometer node, are already
 within this regime. Nanoelectronics are sometimes considered as disruptive
technology because present candidates are significantly different from traditional
transistors.