Applied ihermodynanies7 "4 nas s Copyright © 1993 by Pearson Education Ltd. ‘This edition is published by arrangement with Pearson Education, Ltd, ‘This book is Sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, of otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior written consent in any form of binding oF ‘cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no ‘part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in ‘any form of by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior. “written permission of both the copyright owner and the above-mentioned publisher of this book ISBN 978-81-7758-238-3 First Impression, 2006 Second Impression, 2006 Third Impression, 2007 Fourth Impression, 2008 Fifth Impression, 2009 This edition is manufactured in India and is authorized for sale only in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Clrculation of this edition outside of these terrltortes ts UNAUTHORIZED. Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd, licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia. ‘Head Office: 482, F.LE., Patparganj, Delhi 110 092, India. Registered Office: 14 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India. Printed in India by India Binding House.Contents Preface Acknowledgements Nomenclature 1 Introduction and the First Law of Thermodynamics 1d Heat, work, and the system L2___Units 13 ‘The state of the working fluid 14 Reversibility LS____Reversible work 1.6 ‘Conservation of ene and the First Law of Therm 17 The non-flow equation 1.8 ‘The steady-flow equation Problems 2 = The Working Fluid 21 Liquid, vapour, and gas 2.2 The use of vapour tables, 23, The perfect gas Problems: 3 © Beversible and Irreversible Processes 3.1____ Reversible non-flow processes 3.2. Reversible adiabatic non-flow processes 3.3. Polytropic processes 34 Reversible flow processes 3.5___ Irreversible processes 3.6 Nonsteady-flow processes Problems: 4° The Second Law 4d The heat engine mamics BB Eesseee Y ABBR A BESREBRRS 8 coeContents 42 Entropy 110 43 The 7—s diagram M3 44 Reversible processes on the T—s diagram. 119 45 Entropy and irreversibility 129 46 Exergy 235 Problems The Heat Engine Cycle 145 S.1 The Camoteycle us 5.2 Absolute temperature scale 147 5.3 The Camot cycle for a perfect gas 148 5.4 The constant pressure cycle 150 55. The air standard cycle 153 5.6 The Otto cyele 155 57 The diesel cycle 156 58 ‘The dual-combustion cycle 158 59 Mean effective pressure 161 5.10 The Stirling and Ericsson cycles 163 Problems 00S Mixtures 167 6.1 ___Dalton’s law and the Gibhs—Dalton law __167 62 Volumetric analysis of a gas mixture 170 6.3 The molar mass and specific gas constant 1 64 Specific heat capacities of a gas mixture 17 65 Adiabatic mixing of perfect gases 182 6.6 Gas and vapour mixtures 186 67____The steam condenser 0 Problems 4 Combustion 196 7.1 Basic chemistry 197 Z2___Euels 98 7.3 Combustion equations 200 7.5 Exhaust and flue gas analysis 203 7.6 Practical analysis of combustion products 212 7.8 Imemal energy and enthalpy of reaction 228 7.9 Enthalpy of formation 239 7.10___Calorific value of fines J ___________24} 7.11__ Power plant thermal efficiency 241 7 ao ew 7.13 Air and fuel-vapour mixtures 248Contents 8 Steam Cycles 254 81 The Rankine cycle 255 82 Rankine cycle with superheat 263 83 The enthalpy-entropy chart 265 B84 The reheat cycle 266 85 The regenerative cycle 268 8.6 Further considerations of plant efficiency 273 87 Steam for heating and process use 275 9 Gas Turbine Cycles 280 91 ‘The practical gas turbine cycle 280 9.2 Modifications to the basic cycle 289 | 10 Nozzles and Jet Propulsion 307 10.1 Nozzle shape 302 102 Critical pressure ratio 309 103° Maximum mass flaw as 10.4 Nozzles off the design pressure ratio 38 105 Nozzle efficiency 320 106 Thesteam nozzle 324 10.7 Stagnation conditions 329 10.8 Jet propulsion aa 10.9 The turboprop 334 10.10 The turboprop 342 Problems 345 11__Rotodynamic Machinery 348 11.1 Rotodynamic machines for steam and gas turbine plant 348 11.2 The impulse steam turbine 352 11.3 Pressure and velocity compounded impulse steam turbines 358 11.5 Losses in turbines 378 11.6 _Axial-flow compressors 380 11.7__ Overall efficiency, stage efficiency, and reheat factor 383 118 Polytropic efficiency 388 11,9 Centrifugal compressors 392 1L10__Radial-flow turbines 2. Problems 2008 12__Posltive Displacement Machines 401 12.1___ Reciprocating compressors 402 12.2 Reciprocating compressors including clearance 408Contents 12,3 Multi-stage compression 416 12.4 Steady-flow analysis 425 12.5 426 12.6 Vacuum pumps 431 12.2.__Air motors Problems 2 13 _ Reciprocating Internal-combustion Engines 439 13.1 Four-stroke cycle 441 13.2 Two-stroke cycle ‘444 13.3__Other types of engine 446 13.4 Criteria of performance 447 13.5 Engine output and efficiency 454 13.6 Performance characteristics ST 13,7 Factors influencing performance 462 13.8 Real cycles and the air standard cycle 467 13.9 Properties of fuels for 1C engines 470 13.10 Fuel systems 472 13.11 Measurement of air and fuel flow rates __480 13.12 Supercharging 483 13.13__Engine emissions and legal requirements 490 13.14 Alternative forms of IC engines 495 13.15 Developments in IC engines 499 Problems 501 14_Retrigeration and Heat Pumps 505 14.1 Reversed heart engine cycles 506 14.2 Vepour-compression eycles Sit 143 Refrigerating load 319 144 The pressure-enthalpy diagram 521 14.5 Compressor type $23 15.6 — The use of the flash chamber 527 15.7___ Vapour-absorption cycles. 531 15.8 Gas cycles 537 15.9 Liquefaction of gases 540 14.10 Steam-jet refrigeration $42 14.11 Refrigerants $42 14,12 Control of refrigerating capacity 548 Problems 549 15__Psychrometry and Air-conditioning 553 15.1 ___psychrometric mixtures 553 15.2 specific humidity, relative humidity, and perceniage saturation 354 15.3 Specific enthalpy, specific heat capacity, and specific volume of 15.4 ___ Air-conditioning systems 562Contents 15.5 Cooling towers 3573 Problems 576 16__Heat Transfer 581 61 Fourier’ f 582 16.2 Newton's law of cooling 585 16.3 The composite wall and the electrical analogy 588 16.4 Heat flow through a cylinder and a sphere 592 16.5__ General conduction equation 597 16.6 Numerical methods for conduction 16,.7___ Two-dimensional steady conduction 607 16.8 One-dimensional transient conduction by finite difference 613 16.9 __Foreed conveetion JC 16.10 Natural convection 630, 16.11 Heat exchangers 633 16.12 __Heat exchanger effectiveness 643 16.13 Extended surfaces AT 16.14 Black-body radiation 653 16.15 The grey body 654 16.16 The Stefan-Boltzmann law637 657 16.17 __ Lambert's law and the geometric factor 659 16.18 Radiant interchange between grey bodies 663 16.20 Gas radiation TO 16.21 Further study 671 Problems 672 17__ The Sources, Use, and Management of Energy 683 17.1__ Sources of energy supply, and energy demands 684 17.2 Combined cycles 690 17.3 Combined heat and power (co-generation) 693 17.4 Energy management and energy audits 700 17.5 The technology of energy saving 708 17.6 _ Alternative energy sources 716 17.7 nuclear power plant 79 Problems IndexPreface to the Fifth Edition This book aims to give students of engineering a thorough grounding in the subject of thermodynamics and the design of thermal plant. The book is comprehensive in its coverage without sacrificing the necessary theoretical rigour; the emphasis throughout is on the applications of the theory to real processes and plant. The objectives have remained unaltered through four previous editions and continuing interest in the book not only in the UK but also in most other countries in the English-speaking world has confirmed these objectives as suitable for students on a wide range of courses. The book is designed as a complete course text for degree courses in mechanical, aeronautical, chemical, environmental, and energy engineering, engineering science, and combined studies courses in which thermodynamics and related topics are an important part of the curriculum. Students on technician diploma and certificate courses in engineering will also find the book suitable although the coverage is more extensive than they might require. A number of lecturers in universities and polytechnics in the UK were asked for comments on the book before the fifth edition was prepared; the consensus was that the balance of the book was broadly correct with only minor changes needed, but a more modern format was thought to be desirable. The fifth edition has therefore been completely recast in a new style which will make it more attractive, and easier to use. The opportunity has also been taken to rearrange the chapters in what seems to be a more logical order. Throughout the book the emphasis is now on the effective use of energy resources and the need to protect the environment. The chapter on energy sources, usc and management (Ch. 17), has been improved and extended; it now includes ‘a more extensive coverage of combined heat and power and a new section on energy recovery, including a brief mention of pinch technology. The material ‘on gas turbines, steam turbines, nozzles, and propulsion (Chs 8-10) has been rewritten in a more logical format giving a more general treatment of blade design while still stressing the differences in design procedures for steam and gas turbines. In the chapter on refrigeration (Ch. 14) more emphasis is given to the heat pump and to vapour-absorption plant. A new section on refrigerants discusses the vitally important question of the thinning of the ozone layer due to CFCs; examples and problems in this chapter now use refrigerant 134aPreface to the Fith Edition 12 instead of refrigerant 12, and tables and a reduced scale chart for R134a are included by permission of ICI, Analysis of exhaust gases, emission control for IC engines, and the greenhouse effect are also included. A new sign convention for energy transfer across a system boundary has come into general use in recent years and has therefore been introduced in this book, The convention is to treat both work and heat crossing a boundary as positive when it is transferred from the surroundings to the system, Also, there has been an international agreement to standardize symbols used for heat and ‘mass transfer and the symbols in this text have been chosen accordingly. For example, the symbol for heat transfer coefficient is a, that for thermal conductivity 2, that for dynamic viscosity , and that for thermal diffusivity x, Molar quantities are now distinguished by the overscript, *. Thanks are due to Dr Y.R. Mayhew for many helpful discussions on the use of physical quantities, units, and nomenclature. In the chapter on combustion (Ch. 7) the section on dissociation has been rewritten to conform with the use of a standard thermal ‘equilibrium constant as tabulated in the latest edition of Rogers and Mayhew's Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids. While preparing this new edition I have been ever conscious of the loss of my co-author and colleague for so many years, Allan McConkey, who died Just after the publication of the previous edition in 1986. 1 would like to dedicate this edition to Allan with deep affection and gratitude for a long and fruitful collaboration, TDE 1992Acknowledgements We are grateful to Blackwell Publishers for permission to include extracts from the Rogers and Mayhew Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids (SE Units) (4th ed,), 1988. Figure 15.4 is reproduced by permission of the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, copies of the chart (size A3) for record purposes may be obtained from CIBSE, 222 Balham High Road, London SWI2 SBS. Figure 14.16 is reproduced by permission of ICI; Table 14.1 is an ‘extract with some interpolated values of thermodynamic properties of HFA 134a by permission of ICI, Runcorn, Cheshire. The following sources have been drawn on for information: Figures 13.21 and 13.22 are adapted from The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice by C.F. Taylor, MIT Press, Section 13.13 includes material adapied from Exhaust Emissions Handbook published by Cussons Ltd. The data for Fig. 12.30 was provided by /S. Milne ofthe Department of Mechanical and Industria Engineering, Dundee College of Technology, from an original test carried out by him,Nomenclature To pA MEMS x so 8 air-fuel ratio; area velocity of sound; acceleration; non-fiow specific exergy bottom dead centre British Standard Biot number steady-flow specific exergy brake mean effective pressure brake power velocity; constant; thermal capacity combined heat and power compression ignition coefficient of performance calorific value discharge coefficient specific heat capacity molar heat capacity specific heat capacity at constant pressure specific heat capacity of air per unit mass of dry air specific heat capacity at constant volume molar heat capacity at constant pressure molar heat capacity al constant volume bore; diameter emissive power; energy eccentricity force; geometric factor fuel injection Fourier number friction factor; frequency friction power irradiation gross calorific value Grashof number gravitational accelerationNomenclature 16 =e 25* PARTE ET Ee oF 3 = Tr RRO Zee8 Er 5 enthalpy; fundamental dimension of heat hydrocarbons enthalpy of reaction specific enthalpy specific enthalpy of reaction molar enthalpy molar enthalpy of reaction specific enthalpy of a saturated liquid specific enthalpy of vaporization specific enthalpy of a saturated vapour electric current ternal combustion intensity of radiation indicated mean effective pressure jicated power current density radiosity ‘Colbum factor for heat transfer equilibrium constant standardized equilibrium constant isentropic index for steam; blade velocity coefficient stroke; fundamental dimension of length length: characteristic linear dimension fundamental dimension of mass Mach number mass molar mass mass flow rate rotational speed net calorific value non-dispersive infra-red Nusselt number number of transfer units polytropie index: amount of substance; number of cylinders; nozzle arc length octane number perimeter performance number Prandtl number absolute pressure; blade pitch mean effective pressure brake mean effective pressure indicated mean effective pressure pressure loss heat rate of heat transfer rate of heat transfer per unit area rate of heat transfer per unit volume“NA REET US Nomenclature specific gas constant; thermal resistance; radius; ratio of thermal capacities molar gas constant reheat factor Reynolds number radius; expansion ratio pressure ratio compression ratio entropy; steam consumption spark ignition Stanton number specific entropy specific fuel consumption absolute temperature; torque; fundamental dimension of time top dead centre temperature; fundamental dimension of temperature; blade thickness temperature difference true mean temperature difference arithmetic mean temperature difference logarithmic mean temperature difference internal energy; overall heat transfer coefficient internal energy of reaction specific internal energy specific internal energy of reaction molar internal energy molar internal energy of reaction volume rate of volume flow specific volume work; brake load rate of work transfer, power temperature on any arbitrary scale dryness fraction; nozzle pressure ratio; length height above a datum level number of stages Greek symbols angle of absolute velocity; heat transfer coefficient; absorptivity for radiation blade angle; coefficient of cubical expansion ratio of specific heats, ¢,/c, film thickness degree of reaction emissivity; effectiveness of a heat exchanger 7Nomenclature ” efficiency; dynamic viseosity x thermal diffusivity a thermal conductivity; wavelength y kinematic viscosity . Pe density; reflectivity o ‘Stefan-Boltzmann constant t time; shear stress in a fluid; transmissivity @ relative humidity; angle o Y; solid angle ¥ percentage saturation Subscripts AS air standard a dry air; atmospheric; aircraft; absolute velocity ai absolute velocity at inlet ae absolute velocity at exit B black body BT brake thermal b blade velocity c cold fluid; compressor © condensate; convective; critical value; clearance d dew point; diagram DB dey bulb e exit; exhaust F fin; fluid f saturated liquid; fuel; film; flow velocity fg change of phase at constant pressure 8 saturated vapour; gases gr gross H hot fluid; high-pressure stage hp heat pump I intercooler IT indicated thermal i inlet; a constituent in a mixture; inside surface; intermediate; indicated; mesh point; injector j mesh point; jet L low-pressure stage M mechanical m mean max maximum min minimum N normal net net 0 stagnation condition; overall; outside; zero or reference conditionSete agg wt 3 Sgened Nomenclature product of combustion constant pressure reactant radiation; relative velocity refrigeration relative velocity at exit relative velocity at inlet isentropic vapour; swept volume; stage; steam throat; turbine; total volumetric constant volume wet bulb water; wall; whirl monochromatic value at wavelength, 4 radiation at angle, & polytropic compression polytropic expansion 191 Introduction and the First Law of Thermodynamics All living things depend on energy for survival, and modem civilizations will continue to thrive only if existing sources of energy can be developed to mect the growing demands. Energy exists in many forms, from the “nergy locked in the atoms of matter itself to the intense radiant energy emitted by the sun. Many sources of energy exist; many are known, some perhaps unknown; but when an energy source exists means must first be found to transform the energy into a form convenient to our purpose. The chemical energy of combustion of fossil fuels (oil, coal, gas), and waste (agricultural, industrial, domestic), is used to produce heat which in tum is used to provide mechanical energy in turbines oF reciprocating engines; uranium atoms are bombarded asunder and the nuclear energy released is used as heat; the potential energy of large masses of water is converted into electrical energy as it passes through water turbines on its way from the mountains to the sea; the kinetic energy of the wind is harnessed by windmills to produce electricity; the energy of the waves of the sea is converted into clectrical power in floating turbines; the tides produced by the rotation of the moon produce electrical ‘energy by flowing through turbines in large river estuaries; hot rocks and trapped liquids in the depths of the earth are made to release their energy to be converted to electricity; the immense radiant energy of the sun is tapped to heat water or by suitable device is converted directly into electricity. Figure 1.1 shows the various energy sources and the possible conversion paths with the more important transfers shown as bold lines; more information can be found in Chapter 4 of ref. 1.1 and the bibliogeaphy therein. Applied thermodynamics is the science of the relationship between heat, work, and the properties of systems. It is concerned with the means necessary to convert heat energy from available sources such as fossil fuels into. mechanical work. A heat engine is the name given to a system which by operating in a cyclic manner produces net work from a supply of Reat. The laws of thermodynamics are natural hypotheses based on observations of the world in which we live. It is observed that heat and work are two mutually convertible forms of energy. and this is the basis of the First Law of Thermodynamics. It is also observed that heat never flows unaided from an object at a low temperature to one at a high temperature, in the same way that a river never