Appendix – I

SUMMER TRAINING / INTERNSHIP

Submitted by:

Mr Raghav Khaund
(AUR08NS2716)

B.Tech (E&C), IV Semester

Under the Guidance of

Mr. Navneet Sharma

Amity School of Engineering

AMITY UNIVERSITY RAJASTHAN

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 Appendix-II

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the Report entitled “Summer Training /

Internship” submitted by Raghav Khaund with Enrollment No.
AUR08NS2716 on 19 Jul 2010, is his own work and has been carried
out under my supervision. It is recommended that the candidate may
now be evaluated for his work by the University.

Signature: Signature:
(Raghav Khaund) (Navneet Sharma)
Designation:
Date:

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 CERTIFICATE

Certified that the Report entitled “Summer Training /

Internship” submitted by Raghav Khaund with Enrollment No.
AUR08NS2716 on 15 Jul 2010, is his own work and has been carried
out under my supervision. It is recommended that the candidate may
now be evaluated for his work by the University.

Signature: Signature:
(Raghav Khaund) (DV Rane)
Manager
Date: Jul 2010

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

1. It is said that “what you have said is PAST, what you have done
is HISTORY, what you have WRITTEN lasts till the end”, Hence I
would take this opportunity to thanks some of the important persons
who made my training a fruitful experience. I was bestowed with the
golden opportunity to undergo my “Summer Training” at M/s Larsen &
Toubro Limited, Powai and hence take this opportunity to express my
heartfelt thanks to all those who have been associated with my training.

2. I would like to thank Mr. K. Sreekumar for giving me an

opportunity to undergo Inplant Training in this department for a
period of 6 weeks. I specially thank Mr. Dayanand Rane and all the
engineers for their excellent co-operation and support extended to me
during this period, which helped me to understand the working of an
industry in general and the activities of the department in particular.

3. I express my heartfelt gratitude to Mr. Rajashekar Naidu and

Mr. Gaurav Gawade, for providing me with endless support and
encouragement in all my endeavors at every moment during my In-Plant
training.

4. This acknowledgement is really incomplete if I would fail to

express my sincere thanks to Ms Kriti Uchil HR department L&T for

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giving the opportunity of working in the Defence Electronics
Department.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sl. No. TOPIC Page

No
1 OBJECTIVES OF TRAINING 7

2 CHAPTER-1 : INTRODUCTION 8

3 CHAPTER-2 : PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD 10

4 CHAPTER-3 : COMPONENTS 15

5 CHAPTER-4 : RELAYS 22

6 CHAPTER-5 : CONTACTORS 30

7 CHAPTER-6 : RESOLVER 35

8 CHAPTER-7 : BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS (BLDC) 56

9 CHAPTER-8 : SUMMARY OF THE PROJECT WORK 65

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 OBJECTIVES OF TRAINING
The objectives of Summer Training is to correlate the theoretical
and practical knowledge. Summer Training does not aim at
specialization in any specific area of technology or management, the
objective are as follows:-

 To give the student an exposure to industry & industrial

environment, this cannot be simulated in the institution.

 To get familiarized with various materials, processes, products and

their applications.

 To help the students to include the knack of handling various

problems encountered in executing assignments.

 Students learn to appreciate the need of coordinated efforts of

various persons at different levels in different departments in order
to achieve set goals and targets.

 To correlate the technical knowledge imparted in the institute with

practical requirements of the industry.

 Students get an opportunity to use their knowledge in problem

solving and in project assignment.

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 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1. Larsen & Toubro Limited (L&T) is a technology-driven

engineering and construction organization, and one of the largest
companies in India's private sector. It interests in Manufacturing,
Services and Information Technology has proven to be a boon for our
country.

2. A strong, customer-focussed approach and the constant quest for

top-class quality have enabled the Company to attain and sustain
leadership in its major lines of business in seven decades.

3. L&T was founded by two Danish engineers, Henning Holck-

Larsen and Soren Kristian Toubro, in 1938. Beginning with the import
of machinery from Europe, L&T rapidly took on engineering and
construction assignments of increasing sophistication. It now has a
major presence in key sectors of the economy

4. L&T has an international presence, with a global spread of

offices. A thrust on international business over the last few years has
seen overseas earnings growing to 18 %of total revenue. With factories
and offices located around the country, further supplemented by a wide
marketing and distribution network, L&T's image and equity extends to
virtually every district of India.

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5. L&T believes that progress must necessarily be achieved in
harmony with the environment. A commitment to community welfare
and environmental protection constitute an integral part of the corporate
vision. Due to this L&T’s reputation has been growing not only in India
but in other countries also.

LARSEN & TOUBRO

LIMITED

“ NO DREAM IS TOO BIG, NO

DREAMER IS TOO SMALL ”

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 CHAPTER-2

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

2.1 A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically

support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive
pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated
onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring
board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with
electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also
known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA).

2.2 PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require
much more layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped
or point-to-point constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and faster
for high-volume production. Much of the electronics industry's PCB
design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are
published by the IPC organization.Sometimes abbreviated PCB, a thin
plate on which chips and other electronic components are placed.
Computers consist of one or more boards, often called cards or adapters.
Circuit boards fall into the following categories:-

2.2.1 Motherboard : The principal board that has connectors for

attaching devices to the bus. Typically, the mother board contains the

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CPU, memory, and basic controllers for the system. On PCs, the
motherboard is often called the system board or mainboard.

2.2.2 Expansion Board : Any board that plugs into one of the
computer's expansion slots. Expansion boards include controller boards,
LAN cards, and video adapters.

2.2.3 Daughter Card : Any board that attaches directly to another

board.

2.2.4 Controller Board: A special type of expansion board that

contains a controller for a peripheral device. When you attach new
devices, such as a disk drive or graphics monitor, to a computer

, you often need to add a controller board.

2.2.5 Network Interface Card (NIC) : An expansion board that

enables a PC to be connected to a local-area network

(LAN).

2.2.6 Video Adapter: An expansion board that contains a controller

for a graphics monitor.

2.3. There are many different types of Printed Circuit Board

materials in the market these days. The common ones are FR-1, FR-2,

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CEM-1, CEM-3 and FR-4 . The thickness of the PCB can be 1.0mm,
1.2mm or 1.6mm. They can be single sided or double sided with cooper
clad of 1 oz or 2 oz.

2.4 These are the common low cost PCB that eletronics hobbyist
or students can use for their projects. Of course there are more
complicated multilayer PCB that are used in the industry for various
applications.

2.5 Steps Of Making Simple Single Sided Or Double Sided

PCB For Electronics

2.5.1 PCB Layouts. One will start by making a layout of the PCB
by using a CAD software e.g. Protel, Orcad etc. Of course there are lots
of PCB layout of various projects that you can get from electronics
magazines or CAD software. However, I find it more rewarding and one
learns more by putting your hands on the available CAD software. To do
the layout yourselves, you need to draw the schematics and after that the
PCB layout. The author's favorite PCB layout software is Protel and you
can download the DOS version of it for free. Of course there are other
softwares that one can buy but a number of these softwares have demo
or evaluation copy with limited function that one can download and use.

2.5.2 Printed Circuit Board Design Rule. There are a few

things to look out for when one does the PCB layouts. It is important to
take note that the layout must take into consideration the cost factor as
well as the practicality of making the PCB in-house. Listed below are
some of the design rule that one should try to adhere while doing the

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PCB layouts. The detailed EMC(Electromagnetic compatibility) aspects
will not be covered here.

2.5.3 PCB Electrical Clearance, Track Width Rules. In the

PCB design

of electronics circuit, it is important that one plan and has a checklist of

the do's and don'ts before proceeding to do the printed circuit board
layout. The understanding of the circuit is critical to the design, for
example one needs to understand the maximum current and voltage that
are carried by each conductor in order to determine the track width of
the conductor and the type of PCB that will be used. Some examples of
the IPC standard are provided here.

2.5.4 PCB Prototypes. Once the PCB layout has been

completed, one can start thinking of transferring the layout from the
CAD software

or even the layout from electronics magazines. The author would like to
suggest that one jump over the steps of using transparency, photoresist
chemical, developer chemical and the use of Ultra Violet light. The use
of Printed Circuit Board Transfer Film will eliminates the steps
mentioned. If your layout is in the CAD software, just print the layout
onto this transfer file using a laser printer. If your layout is in the form
of hardcopy like magazines or artwork, all you need to do is to
photocopy the layout into the PCB transfer Film.

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2.6 ZONES OF A PCB

A4 A3 A2 A1 A
B4 B3 B2 B1 A/B B
C4 C3 C2 C1 B/C C

4/3 3/2 2/1

4 3 2 1

2.7 Identification Of Components On A PCB

2.7.1 The PCB is divided into zones- this is done for easier ability
of finding the location of a component.

2.7.2 These zones are to be identified and the respective locations

are to be recognized for a given specific component.

2.7.3 Identification is done with the help of the BOM(Bill Of

Materials).

CHAPTER-3

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 COMPONENTS

3.1 WIRES AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION

3.1.1 American Wire Gauge. American wire gauge (AWG), also

known as the Brown & Sharpe wire gauge, is a standardized wire gauge
system used since 1857 predominantly in the United States for the
diameters of round, solid, nonferrous, electrically conducting wire.[1]
The cross-sectional area of each gauge is an important factor for
determining its current-carrying capacity. The common U.S. wire
gauges (called AWG gauges) refer to sizes of copper wire. The
resistivity of copper at 20 C is about

AWG wire Diameter Resistance per Resistance per

size (solid) (inches) 1000 ft (ohms) 1000 m (ohms)
24 0.0201 25.67 84.2
22 0.0254 16.14 52.7
20 0.0320 10.15 33.2
18 0.0403 6.385 20.9
16 0.0508 4.016 13.2
14 0.0640 2.525 8.28
12 0.0808 1.588 5.21
10 0.1019 0.999 3.28

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AWG wire Resistance per
Area Diameter Maximum current**
1000 ft (ohms) @ 20
CM* (inches) (amperes)
size (solid) C
0000 211600 0.049 0.46 380
000 167810 0.0618 0.40965 328
00 133080 0.078 0.3648 283
0 105530 0.0983 0.32485 245

3.2 Connectors. An electrical connector is a conductive device

for joining electrical circuits together. The connection may be
temporary, as for portable equipment, or may require a tool for assembly
and removal, or may be a permanent electrical joint between two wires
or devices. There are hundreds of types of electrical connectors. In
computing, an electrical connector can also be known as a physical
interface . Connectors may join two lengths of flexible wire or cable, or
may connect a wire or cable to an electrical terminal.

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3.2.1 Properties of Electrical Connectors. An ideal electrical
connector would have a low contact resistance and high insulation
value. It would be resistant to vibration, water, oil, and pressure. It
would be easily mated/unmated, unambiguously preserve the orientation
of connected circuits, reliable, carry one or multiple circuits. Desirable
properties for a connector also include easy identification, compact size,
rugged construction, durability (capable of many connect/disconnect
cycles), rapid assembly, simple tooling, and low cost. No single
connector has all the ideal properties. The proliferation of types is a
reflection of the differing importance placed on the design factors.

3.2.2 Mil-grade connectors (Military grade connectors)

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Numerous advantages in performance capability are designed
into the connector. A positive metal to metal coupling design, grounding
fingers, and electroless nickel plating provide superior EMI shielding
capability of 65 dB minimum at 10 GHz.

3.2.3 Commonly Used Connectors

3.2.3.1 8P8C Connector. 8P8C is short for "eight positions, eight

conductors", and so an 8P8C modular connector (plug or jack) is a
modular connector with eight positions, all containing conductors.

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3.2.3.2 D-subminiature Connectors. The D-subminiature electrical
connector is commonly used for the RS-232 serial port on modems and
IBM compatible computers. The D-subminiature connector is used in
many different applications, for computers, telecommunications, and
test and measurement instruments. A few examples are monitors (MGA,
CGA, EGA), the Commodore 64, MSX, Apple II, Amiga, and Atari
joysticks and mice, and game consoles such as Atari and Sega.

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3.2.3.2 USB Connectors. The Universal Serial Bus is a serial bus
standard to interface devices, founded in 1996. It is currently widely
used among PCs, Apple Macintosh and many other devices. There are
several types of USB connectors, and some have been added as the
specification has progressed. The most commonly used is the (male)
series "A" plug on peripherals, when the cable is fixed to the
peripheral. If there is no cable fixed to the peripheral, the peripheral
always needs to have a USB "B" socket. In this case a USB "A" plug to
a USB "B" plug cable would be needed. USB "A" sockets are always
used on the host PC and the USB "B" sockets on the peripherals. It is a
4-pin connector, surrounded by a shield. There are several other
connectors in use, the mini-A, mini- B and mini-AB plug and socket
(added in the On-The-Go Supplement to the USB 2.0 Specification).

3.2.3.2 Power Connectors. See Domestic AC power plugs and

sockets, NEMA connectors, Industrial and multiphase power plugs
and sockets for discussions of connectors used for electric power.
Power connectors must protect people from accidental contact with
energized conductors. Power connectors often include a safety ground
connection as well as the power conductors. In larger sizes, these
connectors must also safely contain any arc produced when an
energized circuit is disconnected or may require interlocking to prevent
opening a live circuit.

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3.2.3.2 Radio Frequency Connectors. Connectors used at radio
frequencies must not change the impedance of the transmission line of
which they are part, otherwise signal reflection and losses will result. A
radio-frequency connector must not allow external signals into the
circuit, and must prevent leakage of energy out of the circuit. At lower
radio frequencies simple connectors can be used with success, but as the
radio frequency increases, transmission line effects become more
important, with small impedence variations from connectors causing the
signal to reflect from the connector, rather than to pass through. At UHF
and above, silver-plating of connectors is common to reduce losses.For
Wi-Fi antennas the R-TNC connectors are used. A BNC connector is
common for radio and test equipment used up to about 1 GHz.

3.2.3.2 DC Connectors. A DC connector is an electrical

connector for supplying direct current (DC) power

3.3 Crimp Connection. A crimp connection is achieved with a

type of solderless electrical connector.Crimp connectors are typically
used to terminate stranded wire. They fulfill numerous uses, including
allowing the wires to be easily terminated to screw terminals, fast-on /
quick-disconnect / spade-foot type terminals, wire splices, various
combinations of these. Crimp-on terminals are attached by inserting the
stripped end of a stranded wire into a portion of the terminal, which is
then mechanically deformed / compressed (crimped) tightly around the
wire. The crimping is accomplished with a special crimping pliers. A
key idea behind crimped connectors is that the finished connection is
gas-tight.Crimped connections fulfill similar roles, and may be thought

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of similarly to, soldered connections. There are complex considerations
for determining which type is appropriate - crimp connections are
sometimes preferred for these reasons:-

 Easier, cheaper, and/or faster to reproduce reliable connections

in large-scale production.
 Fewer dangerous, toxic and/or harmful processes involved in
achieving the connection (soldered connections require
aggressive cleaning, high heat, and possibly toxic solders).
 Potentially superior mechanical characteristics due to strain
relief and lack of solder wicking.

3.3.1 Barrel

 Wire to be terminated is inserted into a cylindrical section of

metal, then crimped, with the resultant shape somewhat of an
oval.
 To the layperson, perhaps the most common type. Readily
available at retail (Radio Shack, Home Depot, Frys, etc.).

3.3.2 Open-Barrel

 refers to the pre-crimp crimp section having a U or V shape

 More robust connection than barrel-type and thus more
common in industrial and automotive applications
 Simpler to automate since wire can be laid in the un-crimped
connector versus barrel which requires funneling the wire into
the barrel to prevent strands from catching.

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Page 23 of 67
 CHAPTER-4

RELAYS

4.1 A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing

through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a
lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off
so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw
(changeover) switch contacts as shown in the diagram.

4.2 Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can
be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery
circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no
electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is
magnetic and mechanical.

4.3 The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically

30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays
designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot
provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small
IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum
output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices
can supply relay coils directly without amplification.

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  COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving
part of the switch.
 NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when
the relay coil is off.
 NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the
relay coil is on.

* Some of the first computers ever built used relays to implement

Boolean gates.

4.4 Basic Cocept And Working. A relay is an electrically operated

switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching
mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find
applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power
signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The
first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the
signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another.
Relays found extensive use in telephone exchanges and early computers
to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high
power required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor.
Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead
using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with
calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating
coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in

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modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital
instruments still called "protection relays".

4.5 A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire

surrounding a soft iron core, an iron yoke, which provides a low
reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and a set, or
sets, of contacts; two in the relay pictured. The armature is hinged to the
yoke and mechanically linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held
in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air
gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of
contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other
relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their
function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the
armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the
moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed
circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

4.6 When an electric current is passed through the coil, the

resulting magnetic field attracts the armature, and the consequent
movement of the movable contact or contacts either makes or breaks a
connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when
the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and
breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When
the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a
force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed
position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also

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used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to
reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to
reduce arcing.

4.7 When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often
placed across the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing
magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a
voltage spike dangerous to circuit components. Some automotive relays
already include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively a contact
protection network, consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series, may
absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating
current (AC), a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the
solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current,
which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.

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4.8 Protection Diodes For Relays. Transistors and ICs must be
protected from the brief high voltage produced when a relay coil is
switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode (eg 1N4148) is
connected 'backwards' across the relay coil to provide this protection.

4.9 Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field

which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The sudden
collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage across the
relay coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. The
protection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current
through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies away quickly
rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high
enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.

4.10 It is often desirable or essential to isolate one circuit

electrically from another, while still allowing the first circuit to control
the second. For example, if you wanted to control a high-voltage circuit
from your computer, you would probably not want to connect it directly

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to a low-voltage port on the back of your computer in case something
went wrong and the mains electricity ended up destroying the expensive
parts inside your computer.

4.11 One simple method of providing electrical isolation between

two circuits is to place a relay between them, as shown in the circuit
diagram of figure 1. A relay consists of a coil which may be energised
by the low-voltage circuit and one or more sets of switch contacts which
may be connected to the high-voltage circuit.

4.12 When choosing a relay to use in a circuit, you need to bear in

mind properties of both the coil and the switch contacts. Firstly, you

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will need to find a relay that has the required number of switch poles for
your application. You then need to make sure that the switch contacts
can cope with the voltage and current you intend to use - for example, if
you were using the relay to switch a 60W mains lamp on and off, the
switch contacts would need to be rated for at least 250mA at 240V AC
(or whatever the mains voltage is in your country).

4.13 Finally, you need to choose a relay that has a coil that can be
energised by your low-voltage control circuit. Relay coils are generally
rated by their voltage and resistance, so you can work out their current
consumption using Ohm's Law. You will need to make sure that the
circuit powering the coil can supply enough current, otherwise the relay
will not operate properly.

4.14 Advantages of Relays

4.14.1 The complete electrical isolation improves safety by ensuring

that high voltages and currents cannot appear where they should not be.

4.14.2 Relays come in all shapes and sizes for different applications
and they have various switch contact configurations. Double Pole
Double Throw (DPDT) relays are common and even 4-pole types are
available. You can therefore control several circuits with one relay or
use one relay to control the direction of a motor.

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4.14.3It is easy to tell when a relay is operating - you can hear a click as
the relay switches on and off and you can sometimes see the contacts
moving.

4.15 Disadvantages of Relays. Being mechanical though, relays

do have some disadvantages over other methods of electrical isolation:

4.15.1Their parts can wear out as the switch contacts become dirty -
high voltages and currents cause sparks between the contacts.

4.15.2 They cannot be switched on and off at high speeds because

they have a slow response and the switch contacts will rapidly wear out
due to the sparking.

4.15.3 Their coils need a fairly high current to energise, which means
some micro-electronic circuits can't drive them directly without
additional circuitry.

4.15.4 The back-emf created when the relay coil switches off can
damage the components that are driving the coil. To avoid this, a diode
can be placed across the relay coil,

4.16 Difference between relay and solenoid: The RELAY is a

device that acts upon the same fundamental principle as the solenoid.
The difference between a relay and a solenoid is that a relay does not
have a movable core (plunger) while the solenoid does.

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 CHAPTER-5

CONTACTORS

5.1 When a relay is used to switch a large amount of electrical

power through its contacts, it is designated by a special name: contactor.
Contactors typically have multiple contacts, and those contacts are
usually (but not always) normally-open, so that power to the load is shut
off when the coil is de-energized. Perhaps the most common industrial
use for contactors is the control of electric motors.

5.2 A contactor is an electrically controlled switch used for

switching a power circuit, similar to relay except with higher amperage
ratings. A contactor is controlled by a circuit which has a much lower
power level than the switched circuit. Contactors come in many forms
with varying capacities and features. Unlike a circuit breaker, a
contactor is not intended to interrupt a short circuit current.

5.3 Contactors range from those having a breaking current of

several amps and 24 V DC to thousands of amps and many kilovolts.
The physical size of contactors ranges from a device small enough to
pick up with one hand, to large devices approximately a meter (yard) on
a side. Contactors are used to control electric motors, lighting, heating,
capacitor banks, and other electrical loads.

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5.4 Basic Principle And Working. Unlike general-purpose
relays, contactors are designed to be directly connected to high-current
load devices. Relays tend to be of lower capacity and are usually
designed for both normally closed and normally open applications.
Devices switching more than 15 amperes or in circuits rated more than a
few kilowatts are usually called contactors. Apart from optional
auxiliary low current contacts, contactors are almost exclusively fitted
with normally open contacts. Unlike relays, contactors are designed with
features to control and suppress the arc produced when interrupting
heavy motor currents.

5.5 When current passes through the electromagnet, a magnetic

field is produced, which attracts the moving core of the contactor. The
electromagnet coil draws more current initially, until its inductance
increases when the metal core enters the coil. The moving contact is
propelled by the moving core; the force developed by the electromagnet
holds the moving and fixed contacts together. When the contactor coil is
de-energized, gravity or a spring returns the electromagnet core to its
initial position and opens the contacts.

5.6 For contactors energized with alternating current, a small part

of the core is surrounded with a shading coil, which slightly delays the
magnetic flux in the core. The effect is to average out the alternating
pull of the magnetic field and so prevent the core from buzzing at twice
line frequency.

5.7 Most motor control contactors at low voltages (600 volts and
less) are air break contactors; i.e., ordinary air surrounds the contacts

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and extinguishes the arc when interrupting the circuit. Modern medium-
voltage motor controllers use vacuum contactors.Motor control
contactors can be fitted with short-circuit protection (fuses or circuit
breakers), disconnecting means, overload relays and an enclosure to
make a combination starter.

Example:

5.8 The top three contacts switch the respective phases of the
incoming 3-phase AC power, typically at least 480 Volts for motors 1
horsepower or greater. The lowest contact is an "auxiliary" contact
which has a current rating much lower than that of the large motor
power contacts, but is actuated by the same armature as the power
contacts. The auxiliary contact is often used in a relay logic circuit, or
for some other part of the motor control scheme, typically switching 120
Volt AC power instead of the motor voltage.

5.8.1 Contactors are useful in commercial and industrial applications,

particularly for controlling large lighting loads and motors.

5.8.2 One of their hallmarks is reliability.

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5.8.3 However, like any other device, they are not infallible.

5.8.4 In most cases, the contactor does not simply wear out from
normal use.

5.8.5 Usually, the reason for contactor failure is misapplication.

That's why you need to understand the basics of contactors.

5.9 APPLICATIONS

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5.9.1 Lighting Control. Contactors are often used to provide
central control of large lighting installations, such as an office building
or retail building. To reduce power consumption in the contactor coils,
latching contactors are used, which have two operating coils. One coil,
momentarily energized, closes the power circuit contacts, which are then
mechanically held closed; the second coil opens the contacts.

5.9.2 Magnetic Starter. A magnetic starter is a contactor

designed to provide power to electric motors. The magnetic starter has
an overload relay, which will open the control voltage to the starter coil
if it detects an overload on a motor. Overload relays may rely on heat
produced by the motor current to operate a bimetal contact or release a
contact held closed by a low-melting-point alloy. The overload relay
opens a set of contacts that are wired in series with the supply
to the contactor feeding the motor. The characteristics
of the heaters can be matched to the motor so that the
motor is protected against overload. Recently,
microprocessor-controlled motor protection relays
offer more comprehensive protection of motors.

5.9.3 Difference between contactor and relay: "contactor" term is

used for large electromechanical-switches handling large current while a
"relay" is low current handling electromechanical-switch.

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 CHAPTER-6

RESOLVER

6.1 Introduction. The resolver operates on the principle of a

rotary transformer. In a rotary transformer the rotor consists of a coil
(winding) which, together with the stator winding, constitutes a
transformer. The resolver is basically designed exactly in the same way,
with the difference that the stator is made up of two windings displaced
by 90° to one another, instead of one winding. The resolver is used to
determine the absolute position of the motor shaft over one revolution,
especially with servo-drives. Furthermore, the speed and the encoder
simulation for the position control can be derived from the resolver
signal.

Fig: Schematic Design of a Resolver

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6.2 The rotor of the resolver is mounted on the motor shaft. Both
the stator and the rotor are provided with an additional winding each to
allow for brushless transmission of the stator primary voltage to the
rotor. With the aid of these additional windings the primary voltage of
the stator winding with a carrier frequency of about 8 kHz is transmitted
to the rotor (rotating transformer). The two windings carried on the rotor
are coupled electrically so that the voltage transmitted from the stator to
the rotor is also present on the second winding of the rotor.

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6.3 Voltages of different magnitude are induced in the stator
windings, depending on the position of the rotor. The winding through
which there is full current flow at g = 0° (see Fig 1.) has the maximum
voltage present at this point in time. If the rotor is rotating, then voltage
V1 on this winding decreases until it has attained the value zero at an
angle of 90°. If the rotor is further rotated, the voltage again increases
with inverse polarity until it has again reached its maximum at 180°.
Voltage V1 has a cosine curve as envelope. Voltage V2, which is
displaced by 90° to voltage V1, has a value of 0 V at 0°. It increases
until it has attained its maximum value at 90°, and then decreases again.
The envelope of V2 is therefore a sine curve. This is the known
principle of amplitude modulation.

6.4 The output voltages V1 and V2 are calculated as a function of

the input voltage Ve by:

Input:
Output:

where g = rotor angle

w = carrier frequency of Ve
VS = input voltage peak value

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 Fig: Output Voltages V1 and V2 of the Resolver

6.5 Processing And Evaluating The Resolver Signals. The

signals of the resolver are converted in the R/D converter
(resolver/digital converter) into a digital numerical value. This digital
value can be further processed to obtain additional information. The R/D
converter provides information on the rotor position. Using the count
value, the speed of the motor can be determined by counting the number
of pulses within a specific time window, which then serves to determine
the speed. The two least significant bits of the count value can be
evaluated:

 for encoder simulation to determine the speed

 for higher-level positioning controls.

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 Fig: Processing of Resolver Signals

6.6 A further example of analysis of signal processing is described

in the next figure:

Fig: Block Circuit Diagram of an R/D Converter

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6.6.1 The oscillator [1] (see Fig.) feeds the rotor via the stator
winding with an AC voltage of about 10 Vrms and a frequency of about
8 kHz. The digital numerical value of the up-down counter [6] is then
converted in a D/A converter [5]. The output signals V1 and V2 of the
stator of the resolver are multiplied by the sine or cosine of the
converted value. The value of the up-down counter represents the angle
j. As a result, the two voltages below are produced:

6.6.2 The two multiplied output signals are subtracted from one
another in the error amplifier [2]. The difference corresponds to the error
(deviation) between the angle j and the actual angle g. The error is:

6.6.3 Simplified, this equation is:

6.6.4 This signal is demodulated in the phase-selective rectifier [3]

which is downstream of the subtractor [2] in order to remove the carrier
frequency. The signal arising at the output of the rectifier is the error
voltage VF, which is proportional to sin (g - j).

6.6.5 This voltage is applied simultaneously to an output of the R/D

converter and the input of the integrator [4]. The integrator [4] integrates
the error voltage which is applied to the input of a voltage controlled

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oscillator (VCO) [7].

6.6.6 If there is an angular difference between the angles g and j, the

integrator produces a DC voltage from it. Using this DC voltage, the
VCO [7] produces pulses, which are then processed in the up-down
counter [6].

6.6.7 The modules [2] to [7] form a closed-loop control circuit

working similar to a PLL (Phase locked loop). A DC voltage signal is
present at the VCO [7] until the difference between the angles g and j
equals zero, ie. until:

g=j

6.6.8 Thus the digital value of the up-down counter corresponds to

the analogue value of the angle g of the resolver present at the input of
the R/D converter.

6.6.9 Over a continuous turn of the resolver the VCO must produce
pulses until the count value of the V/R counter corresponds to the
analogue value of the rotor angle at the input, ie. the angular variation of
the resolver is offset. Consequently, the frequency of the VCO is
proportional to the speed of the motor and the resolver. So the output
voltage of the integrator can be used as a speed signal.
6.6.10 The R/D converter supplies a direct voltage VT at the outputs,

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which is proportional to the speed, plus absolute information for one
revolution of the resolver.

6.6.11 The evaluation circuit is implemented as an integrated circuit.

Only the oscillator [1] is connected externally. The error of the resolver
signal is negligible for most applications (< 0.05%).

6.7 Example of a Resolver Based Application

6.8 Resolver as Velocity And Position Encoding Devices.

6.8.1 Introduction. The shaft angle transducer is a fundamental

component in modern control technology. It is difficult to define a
mechanical system in aerospace or industry that does not have several
axis of angular or linear motion. By employing direct coupling or a
straightforward mechanical translation, a shaft angle can be used to
monitor either type of displacement.

6.8.2 Encoding Methods. The following types of shaft angle

transducers are common to the control industry:-

 Potentiometer
 Incremental encoder
 Absolute encoder
 Resolver
 Inductosyn

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6.8.2 Potentiometer. The potentiometer houses a circular ring of
resistive material. A rotating contact is positioned on the resistive
material according to the input shaft angle. The resistance between one
end of the ring and the contact is proportional to the shaft angle. If a
voltage is applied across the potentiometer, the voltage at the contact
varies according to the shaft angle. This voltage can be routed to an A/D
converter to derive a digital shaft angle.

6.8.3 Incremental Shaft Encoders. Encoders directly convert

shaft angle to a digital format. Optical encoders for industrial
applications consist of a shaft-mounted disc with concentric rings of
alternate transparent and opaque segments. These segments block or
pass light from an LED or incandescent light source to a group of
photocells buffered to produce usable output logic levels. Incremental
encoders are less expensive but result in volatile systems because they
must be re-zeroed or reset after even a brief loss of power.

6.8.4 Absolute Encoders. Absolute optical encoders are similar to

incremental types, but employ a ring for every order output bit. These
rings normally produce a gray code to avoid ambiguity. In addition to
photo detectors and buffers, units generally contain electronics to
convert from gray to binary code.

6.8.5 Resolvers. Resolvers resemble small rotors and are

essentially rotary transformers designed so the coefficient of coupling
between rotor and stator varies with the shaft angle. Fixed windings are
placed on a laminated iron stack to form the stator, and movable
windings are placed on a laminated iron stack to form the rotor. Usually

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resolvers have a pair of windings on a rotor and a second pair on the
stator, positioned at right angles to each other. When a rotor winding is
excited with an ac reference signal, stator windings produce ac voltage
outputs that vary in amplitude according to the sine and cosine of shaft
position. Connection to the rotor is made by the brushes and slip rings,
or inductive coupling. Resolvers using the inductive method are referred
to as brushless types. The inductive (brushless) resolvers offer up to 10
times the life of brush types and are insensitive to vibration and dirt,
therefore they are used in the majority of industrial applications. The
stator signals from a resolver are routed to a specialized type of analog-
to-digital converter system known as a resolver-to-digital (R/D)
converter. Commercially available models include both tracking and
multiplexed types.

6.8.6 Inductosyns. The Inductosyn is an AC device whose signals

behave much like those from a resolver. This device employs etched
patterns that are placed directly on rotary or linear substrates. The
devices operate on inductive or capacitive coupling between sets of the
patterns to generate AC signals proportional to the sine and cosine of
angle. The electronics required to convert the signals into digital format
are similar to an R/D converter.

6.9 Comparing Techniques

6.9.1 Potentiometers are useful for accuracies in the 5% to 0.5%

area and are the lowest cost device presented herein. Since they are
subject to wear, their application is generally limited to consumer and
low end industrial applications.

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6.9.2 Incremental encoders are reasonably inexpensive. They are
found extensively in industry, although their reliability is somewhat
marginal in harsh environments. Discs can crack under shock, and
condensation can cause output errors. Their volatile outputs can also
limit acceptability in some applications.

6.9.3 Absolute encoders range from medium to high cost

depending on resolution required. Like their incremental counterparts,
they are somewhat limited by reliability considerations.

6.9.4 Inductosyns are relatively expensive but offer very high

accuracies. Since they have virtually no moving parts to wear, they are
very reliable. Support electronics is required to condition the drive and
output signals of the device in addition to the Inductosyn-to-digital
converter.

6.10 Resolver Based Systems. Three basic types of resolvers are

common to aerospace and industry. These are the resolver transmitter
(RX), the resolver differential (RD) and the resolver control transformer
(RC). The difference between types has to do with the arrangement and
number of windings used and whether the rotor or stator windings are
used as the primary. The resolver transmitter is best suited for modern
conversion techniques, therefore it will be designated as the principal
transducer used for the balance of this presentation.

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6.11. The Resolver Transmitter

6.11.1 Conventions. A schematic of the resolver transmitter is

illustrated (fig. 2). By convention, the positive direction (increasing
angle) of rotor motion is counter-clock wise when a resolver is viewed
from the shaft end. Resolver manufacturers normally identify the zero
angle mechanically with a scribe on the shaft and a corresponding arrow
or dot on the housing.

BASIC TRIGONOMETRIC LAW-

SIN A COS B - COS A SIN B = SIN (A-B)

Fig: Equivalent Resolver Schematics

6.11.2 Parameters. The most important electrical parameters of a

resolver transmitter are the angular accuracy, input voltage, frequency of
operation and transformation ratio. Phase shift is not normally critical
except for fast moving systems and/or where higher resolution

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converters are employed. Rotor and stator impedances are not normally
critical. Occasionally one will select low impedance values if resolver
outputs are run over 200 feet. Higher values are selected to reduce the
amount of excitation current required to drive the resolver rotor.

6.12 The Resolver-to-Digital Converter (RDC)

6.12.1 The BAMS System. The accepted method of representing

angular information in digital form is the "BAMS" (Binary Angle
Measurement Systems). In this system, the most significant bit
represents 180  , the next bit 90  , the next 45  , etc. The value of
the least significant bit is then dependent on the resolution. The 12th bit
value is 360 divided by 212 or 0.088 . An alternative BCD format is
employed for display applications.

6.12.2 Basic Algorithm. The trigonometric law which forms the

foundation for most resolver conversion methods is as follows:

SIN A COS B  COS A SIN B = SIN (A  B)

This law may be modified extensively to facilitate different

implementations.

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6.12.3 Example Implementation. To illustrate a simple application
of the above formula, consider the two resolver systems shown below.
The transformation ratio is 1.0 rotor to stator or vice versa. The output
of resolver A is:

ES3-S1 = V sinA

ES2-S4 = V cosA

where V is the excitation voltage applied to the rotor. In effect, resolver

A "multiplies" the input voltage by the sine and cosine of shaft angle.
The output of resolver B is:

E (R2-R4) = E (S2-S4) cosB + E (S1-S3) sinB

Resolver B acts as a control transformer, "multiplying" the input

between S2-S4 by the cosine of its shaft angle B and the input from S3-
S1 by the sine of angle B. If we now connect the V sinA output of
resolver A to the S2-S4 input of resolver B and connect the V cosA
output to the S3-S1 input of resolver B, the output of resolver B will
then be:

E (R2-R4) = V sinA cosB + V cosA sinB

=V sin (A + B)

It will be more useful to reverse the polarity of the S3-S1 input to

resolver B. The resulting output is now:

E (R2-R4) = V sinA cosB - V cosA sinB

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 =V sin (A - B)

If the rotor of resolver B is turned until the angle agrees with the angle
of resolver A, it may be seen that the output of resolver B would go to
zero.

If we added an error amplifier and a motor to shaft B, the position of

shaft B would be continually driven to agree with the position of shaft
A. This is a basic servo loop and also a close analogy to the function of
a tracking resolver-to-digital converter.

Fig: Resolver follow up system

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6.13 Difference Between an Encoder and a Resolver
Output Signal
Encoders produce pulses
indicating movement over a short
distance; counting these pulses
indicates distance (and speed
over time) and checking the order
of pulses in channel A vs. channel
B indicates direction
(quadrature).
Input Signal
Encoders are typically powered
with simple DC voltage.
Resolvers produce a set of
sine/cosine waves (analog
voltage) indicating absolute
position within a single
revolution; these signals are
typically converted with a
resolver interface board to a
digital signal.
Resolvers are “excited” by an AC
reference sine wave, typically
created with a dedicated resolver
power supply; this power supply
is typically powered with simple
DC voltage.
Page 52 of 67
Location of Electronics
Encoders typically have all their
electronics onboard, minimizing
interconnections, but limiting
operating temperatures.
Typical Applications
Resolver systems typically mount
the resolver power supply and
resolver interface board near the
input device, requiring substantial
inter-device wiring, but allowing
the resolver to withstand higher
temperature environments.
Page 53 of 67
Encoder Applications: Resolver Applications

• AC Induction Motor Speed • Permanent Magnet (PM)

and Position Control
• DC Motor Speed and
Position Control
• AC & DC Servo Motors
(with commutation tracks added)
Motor Commutation and Speed
Control
• AC & DC Servo Motor
Commutation and Speed Control

6.14. Summary. Resolvers are one of the most reliable

components available to monitor shaft position. They are well suited to
hostile environments and their performance does not deteriorate with
time. They may be placed up to 500 feet from a system electronics
package with a minimum of interconnect wiring. Resolvers offer infinite
repeatability, provide absolute non-volatile outputs, and have a high
degree of flexibility which simplifies matching them to converter
electronics.

6.15 The combination of a brushless resolver and a tracking

converter not only provides real-time position information but also can
approximate the function of a brushless DC tachometer - providing
accurate velocity information. The resolver/converter combination is
then a powerful tool for the control industry.

6.16 The resolver consists of a shaft and two adjacent coils.The

shaft turns with change in the angle of related apparatus. The shaft is
being provided with an input which is a sine wave. The two two-phase
windings, fixed at right (90°) angles to each other on the stator, produce

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a sine and cosine feedback current by the same induction process. The
adjacent coils with voltages namely V1 sin θ and V2 cos θ.( θ is the
angle turned which is to be detected). Now that the turn has influenced
the coils the resolver to digital converter becomes active which works
on the formula

θ=tanˉ¹(V2/V1)

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Derivation:
V1sin θ = V2cosθ

=>V2/V1= sinθ / cos θ

=> V2/V1= tan θ

=> θ = tanˉ¹(V2/V1)
Conclusion:

Thus, as we can see, the variation of voltages due to turning of the shaft
will give us values for θ. Therefore the main purpose of the resolver is
identification of the angle turned.

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 CHAPTER-7
BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS (BLDC)

7.1 How Brushed Motors Work. To know why brushless motors

are so efficient and powerful, it helps to know how standard brushed
motors work.

7.2 In a conventional RC electric motor, such as what you find in

the Sprint 2 car or E-Firestorm truck, you'll find two wires (positive and
negative) that connect to specific points in the endbell of the motor, two
curved permanent magnets inside the case or 'can' of the motor, and a
spinning shaft with wires wrapped around it that goes down the centre
of the motor can. The shaft and the wires together are known as the
'armature' of the motor, and at one end is where the motor pinion gear is
attached - at the other end is a copper section, this is called the
'commutator'.

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7.3 Touching the commutator to transfer electrical power to the
armature are two 'brushes'. As you can see from the diagram above, the
wires that come from the speedo bring power to the brushes, which
physically contact the commutator, turning the armature into a basic
electromagnet when electricity is applied.

7.4 How a Standard Motor Spins. When an electromagnet has

power applied to it, one end becomes the north 'pole' and the other
becomes the south pole. Because the north pole of any magnet is
automatically repelled from the north pole of another magnet, the motor
armature will want to spin so its north pole is facing the south pole of
the permanent curved magnets mounted inside the motor can. As the
armature spins around to make the north/south poles meet, the electrical
charge applied to the armature flips, so the poles are again repelled from
each other and they make the armature spin, turning the pinion gear and
your car or truck's transmission. Most electric motors have three poles
instead of two - this prevents the battery from shorting out, lowering
efficiency, and it also prevents the motor from getting stuck in one
position.

7.5 The Limitations Of Standard Motors. The restrictions of

brushed motors are made clear when you need to get huge amounts of
power and speed from them. Because the brushes must remain in
physical contact with the commutator at all times, there is significant
friction from them, especially at high speeds. Any imperfection in the
commutator makes the brushes bounce and lose contact, making the
motor less efficient. This is why racers true the commutator of their race

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motors after nearly every run, and change the motor brushes almost as
often. There is also significant electrical noise generated by the
inefficient circuits, and the commutator and brushes eventually wear
out, requiring replacement of parts of the motor, or the entire thing.

7.6 Now, How Brushless Motors Work. The basic explanation

of a brushless motor's construction is that it is similar to a brushed
motor, except everything is 'inside out' and there are no brushes at all.
The permanent magnets that would wrap around the armature in a
normal motor are instead placed around the motor shaft, and this
assembly is called the rotor. The wire coils are around the inside of the
motor can, making several different magnetic poles. In a sensored
brushless motor, there are sensors on the rotor that send signals back to
the electonic speed control.

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7.7 Why Brushless Motors Are So Much More Efficient Than
Brushed Motors. Other than the ball bearings the rotor spins on, there
is no physical connection at all, automatically making the brushless
motor more efficient and longer-lasting because there is no friction of
the brushes and commutator. Having a computer (the speedo) control the
rotation of the rotor also vastly increases efficiency. There's also no
sparking from brushes to commutator so electrical interference is
drastically reduced, and finally the coils are much easier to keep cool,
boosting efficiency even further.

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7.8 Drawbacks of a Brushless Motors. The only possible
drawback to a brushless motor system is the increased starting cost,
however anyone familiar with maintaining high-power, heavily abused
brushed motors will know that you'll quickly see considerable savings
because you won't be replacing motor brushes, brush springs, armatures
or whole motors...EVER!

7.9 How much cheaper could brushless motors be than

standard motors? The cost of racing a typical touring car brushed
motor could add up to over 3-5 Euro per run if you replace the brushes
every time you do a 5-minute race. Add in the cost of a variety of
springs (four pairs of springs at 3 Euro per pair), commutator lathe at
over 90 Euro, diamond tip for the lathe at over 50 Euro, then the extra
battery pack for the lathe and you've got quite a racing bill on your
hands!

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7.10 Are brushless motors really 'no maintenance'?Yes! They
are such a time-saver that racers around the world have re-discovered
the joys of having fun in the pit area. They no longer have to deal with
everything they used to do with their motors between every race: motor
removal, disassembly, comm trueing, brush swapping, re-assembly,
break-in and finally re-installing...it adds up to quite a lot of time and
money spent every race day! The only possible need for maintenance
are on well-used brushless motors that might need the bearings cleaned
or changed. This is only ever rarely needed, however, so it shouldn't
even be classified as regular maintenance work.

7.11 Why Sensorless? Apart from basic size and power

differences, brushless motors are available in two main types: sensored
and sensorless. Sensored motors use very small sensors on the rotor,
plus an extra set of thin wires that connect the motor to the speedo, in
addition to the three thick wires that give the motor its power. The extra
wires tell the speedo the position of the motor's armature as it spins,
hundreds of times per second. This provides a huge amount of data to
the speedo, and the speedo's 'brain' takes this data and combines it with
the throttle input from the radio system to make the motor spin as
smoothly and efficiently as possible. All this makes for a great system
for top-level racers, however it makes the speedos and motors a bit more
expensive and slightly harder to install and use.

7.12. A sensorless brushless system, as you might guess, doesn't

have these sensors and extra wires, and the motor armature spins
without relaying its exact precision back to the speedo every milisecond.

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This makes the motor and speedo easier to manufacture, simpler to
install, easier to adjust and cheaper overall. A sensorless system
provides the same amount of power as a sensored type, just with a tiny
bit less precision - perfect for sport racers, general hobbyists and pretty
much anyone that isn't a hardcore, world-traveling racer.

7.13 Brushless Motor Operation. In a typical DC motor, there

are permanent magnets on the outside and a spinning armature on the
inside. The permanent magnets are stationary, so they are called the
stator. The armature rotates, so it is called the rotor.

Fig: The armature of a typical DC motor

7.14 The armature contains an electromagnet. When you run

electricity into this electromagnet, it creates a magnetic field in the
armature that attracts and repels the magnets in the stator. So the
armature spins through 180 degrees. To keep it spinning, you have to
change the poles of the electromagnet. The brushes handle this change
in polarity. They make contact with two spinning electrodes attached to

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the armature and flip the magnetic polarity of the electromagnet as it
spins.

7.15 This setup works and is simple and cheap to manufacture, but
it has a lot of problems:

 The brushes eventually wear out.

 Because the brushes are making/breaking connections, you
get sparking and electrical noise.
 The brushes limit the maximum speed of the motor.
 Having the electromagnet in the center of the motor makes
it harder to cool.
 The use of brushes puts a limit on how many poles the
armature can have.

7.16 With the advent of cheap computers and power transistors, it

became possible to "turn the motor inside out" and eliminate the
brushes. In a brushless DC motor (BLDC), you put the permanent
magnets on the rotor and you move the electromagnets to the stator.
Then you use a computer (connected to high-power transistors) to
charge up the electromagnets as the shaft turns. This system has all sorts
of advantages:

Page 64 of 67
7.17 Because a computer controls the motor instead of mechanical
brushes, it's more precise. The computer can also factor the speed of the
motor into the equation. This makes brushless motors more efficient.

 There is no sparking and much less electrical noise.

 There are no brushes to wear out.
 With the electromagnets on the stator, they are very easy to
cool.
 You can have a lot of electromagnets on the stator for more
precise control.

7.18 The only disadvantage of a brushless motor is its higher initial

cost, but you can often recover that cost through the greater efficiency
over the life of the motor.

7.19 Brushless Vs Brushed Dc Motors

7.19.1 Limitations of brushed DC motors overcome by BLDC motors

include:

7.19.2 Lower efficiency

7.19.3 Susceptibility of the commutator assembly to mechanical wear

7.19.4 Consequent need for servicing, at the cost of potentionally less

rugged and more complex and expensive control electronics.

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7.19.5 A BLDC motor has permanent magnets which rotate and a
fixed armature, eliminating the problems of connecting current to the
moving armature.

7.19.6 An electronic controller replaces the brush/commutator

assembly of the brushed DC motor, which continually switches the
phase to the windings to keep the motor turning.

7.19.7 The controller performs similar timed power distribution by

using a solid-state circuit rather than the brush/commutator system.

7.19.8 BLDC motors offer several advantages over brushed DC

motors, including more torque per weight and efficiencyreliability,
reduced noise

7.19.9 Longer lifetime (no brush and commutator erosion)

7.19.10 Elimination of ionizing sparks from the commutator, more

power, and

7.19.11 Overall reduction of electromagnetic interference (EMI).

7.19.12 With no windings on the rotor, they are not subjected to

centrifugal forces, and because the windings are supported by the
housing, they can be cooled by conduction, requiring no airflow inside
the motor for cooling. This in turn means that the motor's internals can
be entirely enclosed and protected from dirt or other foreign matter.

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 CHAPTER-8

SUMMARY OF THE PROJECT WORK

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